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RIVERSIDE  TEXTBOOKS 
IN  EDUCATION 

EDITED  BY  ELLWOOD   P.  CUBBERLEY 

PROFESSOR  OF  EDUCATION 
LXLAlfl)   STANFORD  JUNIOR   UNIVERSITY 


DIVISION  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

UNDER  THE  EDITORIAL  DIRECTION 

OF  ALEXANDER  INGLIS 


PROFESSOR  OF  EDUCATION 
HARVARD   UNIVERSITY 


CLASSROOM 

ORGANIZATION  AND 

CONTROL 


BY 


J.  B.  SEARS 


ASSOCIATE    PROFESSOR    OF   EDUCATION 

LELAND    STANFORD  JUNIOR 

UNIVERSITY 


HOUGHTON  MIFFLIN  COMPANY 

BOSTON      NEW   YORK      CHICAGO      SAN   FRANCISCO 

^1)t  Qitaet^tie  ^xt^^  Cambcibge 


[SfK     I 


COPYRIGHT,   1918,  BY  J.    B.   SEARS 
ALL   RIGHTS   RESERVED 

MiRJC.  DEFT. 


CAMBRIDGE  •  MASSACHUSETTS 
PRINTED  IN  THE  U.SJl 


EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION 

The  plan  followed  in  the  development  of  the  present  ad- 
dition to  this  series  of  textbooks  is  so  well  stated  by  the 
author  in  his  Preface  as  to  call  for  but  little  in  addition 
from  the  editor  of  the  series.  That  the  author  has  worked 
out  quite  successfully  the  plan  he  has  followed,  and  has 
produced  a  stimulating  and  a  useful  book,  will  doubtless  be 
proved  by  its  future  use  as  a  textbook  for  teachers  in  training, 
and  as  a  reading  circle  book  for  teachers  in  service. 

While  not  neglecting  the  psychological  aspects  of  the 
problems  of  school  management,  the  author  has  placed 
special  emphasis  on  classroom  organization  and  control  as 
a  social  problem  of  large  potential  importance.  Regarding 
the  school  as  a  great  social  instrument,  education  as  a  proc- 
ess of  social  adjustment,  and  school  management  as  a  con- 
structive social  undertaking  to  the  details  of  which  the  most 
careful  thought  should  be  given,  he  has  stressed  the  impor- 
tance of  the  teacher  conceiving  clearly  the  important  social 
purpose  of  the  educative  process,  of  making  definite  plans 
for  classroom  organization  and  control  in  the  hght  of  well- 
established  social  aims  and  demands,  and  of  knowing  how  to 
determine  the  effectiveness  of  her  labors  in  standard  social 
as  well  as  psychological  terms.  The  volume  is  essentially  a 
treatment  of  the  old  and  ever-present  problem  of  school 
management  from  the  point  of  view  of  modern  sociology, 
rather  than  from  the  psychological  angle.  While  containing 
numerous  practical  hints  and  suggestions  for  the  manage- 
ment of  the  details  and  the  orderly  conduct  of  classroom 
procedure,  these,  too,  are  stated  in  terms  of  a  great  under- 


vi  EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION 

lying  social  purpose  rather  than  as  devices  of  the  do  or 
don't  variety. 

The  prosj>ective  teacher  who  studies  this  volume  care- 
fully while  in  training,  and  tries  to  answer  the  thought- 
provoking  questions  found  at  the  close  of  each  chapter,  can 
hardly  fail  to  go  to  the  work  of  the  classroom  possessed  of 
an  important  and  highly  useful  insight  into  the  deeper  social 
values  of  good  classroom  organization  and  control.  Teachers 
in  service  also,  especially  such  as  have  but  recently  entered 
the  service,  should  find  the  book  equally  helpful  for  profes- 
sional study,  because  its  practical  suggestions  and  important 
social  point  of  view  can  be  appreciated  even  better  in  the 
light  of  some  classroom  exp)erience. 

Part  rV  is  a  very  desirable  addition  to  the  usual  volume  on 
this  subject.  The  chapter  on  "The  Teacher's  Personality" 
is  an  excellent  statement,  and  one  which  any  teacher  could 
read  and  re-read  with  continual  profit  to  herself  and  her 
school.  The  next  chapter  sets  forth  an  excellent  program  for 
personal  development  and  professional  progress.  The  im- 
portance to  the  teacher  of  health  is  emphasized  in  another 
well-written  chapter;  and  finally,  the  teacher  is  told  how 
she  may  measure  her  social  usefulness  and  how  she  may 
set  herself  right  in  her  personal,  oflBcial,  and  community 
relations. 

It  is  a  pleasure  to  introduce,  to  the  educational  pubUc 
and  to  the  many  new  teachers  this  book  will  reach,  so  help- 
ful and  so  stimulating  a  volume  by  a  former  pupil  and  a 
present  colleague. 

Ellwood  p.  Cubbebley 


PREFACE 

The  management  of  a  school  is  a  many-sided  problem, 
lyings  roughly  speaking,  between  the  intimate  details  of 
teaching  method  at  the  one  extreme,  and  the  coarser  ad- 
justments of  administration  and  supervision  at  the  other. 
As  the  term  imphes,  the  task  is  essentially  an  executive 
one  —  the  manager,  that  is,  the  teacher  or  the  principal, 
being  a  director  of  the  activities  of  children  in  their  pursuit 
of  an  education. 

The  functions  of  this  teacher  executive  are  not  only  to 
direct;  she  must  also  formulate  much  of  the  policy  she  is  to 
execute.  To  do  this  she  must  have  some  knowledge  of  the 
essential  working  principles  upon  which  organization  and 
management  rest.  These  principles  have  been  set  forth  in 
this  book,  not  so  much  as  a  theoretical  treatise,  but  rather 
by  showing,  as  concretely  as  possible,  how  such  principles  are 
to  operate  among  the  plain  practical  facts  which  are  to  be 
dealt  with  in  actual  school  situations. 

It  is  assumed  that  in  managing  a  school  the  first  step  is 
a  clear  aim;  the  second,  carefully  formulated  plans;  the 
third,  execution;  the  fourth,  evaluation  of  results.  Thus,  by 
implication,  it  is  demanded  of  school  managers  that  they 
shall  take  a  critical  attitude  toward  their  work,  and  dismiss 
the  idea  that  experience  is  all  that  counts  in  preparation. 

The  book  is  divided  into  four  parts.  In  Part  I  the  prob- 
lem of  school  management  is  set  forth.  The  broad  social  aim 
and  character  of  education  and  of  the  school  as  an  institu- 
tion are  emphasized,  and  the  essential  relationship  between 
a  clear  aim  and  any  trustworthy  plan  of  action  is  explained. 


viii  PREFACE 

—  all  these  in  their  relation  to  the  two  large  sets  of  fac- 
tors, natural  and  environmental,  in  respect  to  which  man- 
agement is  to  be  effected. 

In  Part  II  the  discussion  centers  about  the  pupil  as  the 
object  of  management,  showing  how  the  school  is  to  help 
the  child  to  develop  a  real  sense  of  membership  in  the 
group.  This  brings  up  questions  of  attendance,  order  and 
discipline,  punishments,  and  incentives,  with  constant  em- 
phasis upon  what  the  school  can  do  for  the  individual  child. 

Part  III  describes  the  machinery  necessary  for  managing 
children  in  groups,  and  explains  the  process  by  which  such 
means  may  be  made  effective  in  achieving  the  principal 
educational  aims.  The  organization  of  children,  of  subject- 
matter,  of  the  day*s  work,  of  the  physical  features  of  the 
school;  the  directing  of  study,  recitation,  and  recreation; 
and,  finally,  the  ways  and  means  for  measuring  results 
achieved,  are  dealt  with  here,  not  as  isolated  structural 
parts,  but  as  dynamic  featiu'es  of  institutional  life. 

Part  IV  undertakes  to  sketch  out  and  to  point  the  way 
toward  the  attainment  of  a  set  of  standards  in  personality, 
professional  development,  health,  and  methods  of  work, 
for  the  teacher  as  the  instrument  by  means  of  which  society 
hopes  to  attain  its  educational  aims. 

The  book  is  designed  as  a  text  for  college  and  normal- 
school  students  and  for  teachers  in  service.  It  has  avoided 
over-technical  treatment,  but  wherever  recent  scientific 
studies  have  made  it  possible  to  substitute  fact  for  opin- 
ion, these  studies  have  been  liberally  drawn  upon.  The 
purpose  has  been  to  prepare  a  readable  book  which  may 
help  toward  placing  the  management  of  our  schools  upon 
a  more  scientific  basis. 

The  author  is  substantially  indebted  to  the  editor  of  this 
series,  both  for  important  suggestions  and  for  continuous 
encouragement,  and  to  Professor  C.  E.  Rugh,  of  the  Uni- 


PREFACE  ix 

versity  of  California,  for  the  privilege  of  reading  several  ex- 
cellent unpublished  manuscripts  bearing  on  certain  phases 
of  the  subject-matter  of  this  volume. 

Stanford  University 

November  20,  1917 


xl 


CONTENTS 

PART  I.  THE  NATURE  OF  THE  PROBLEM 

I.  The  Meaning  and  Aim  of  Education        ...  8 

lit  The  Function  of  the  Aim  in  Management     .      .  19 

III.  Human  Factors  concerned 27 

IV.  The  Environment  and  Teacher  as  Factors   .      .  39 

PART  n.  THE  PUPIL  AS  THE  OBJECT 

V.  Membership  AND  Attendance        .      .      .      .      ,  49  \ 

VI.  Order  and  Discipline 5^ 

VII.  School  Punishments 75 

Vni.  Incentives  in  Management 87 

PART  m.  THE  MACHINERY  AND  THE  PROCESS 

IX.  Organizing  the  School 109 

X.  Grading  and  Promotion 123 

XL  The  School  Curriculum 144 

XII.  The  Daily  Program 159 

XIII.  The  Class  Studying 173^. 

XIV.  The  Class  Reciting 188/' 

XV.  Testing  the  Effectiveness  of  the  Machinery 

and  the  Process 207 

PART  IV.  THE  TEACHER  THE  INSTRUMENT 

XVI.  The  Teacher's  Personality 227 

XVn.  The  Teacher's  Training  and  Growth       .      .      .  245 


xii  CONTENTS 

Xviii.  The  Teacher's  Health  and  Recreation  .      .      .  263 
XIX.  The  Teacher  at  Work 275 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 293 

INDEX      . 297 


LIST  OF  FIGURES  IN  THE  TEXT 

1.  The  Distribution  of  Intelligence 128 

2.  Distribution  of  Work  done  in  Addition     ....  130 

3.  Group  Progress  with  a  Course  of  Study  .      .      .      .134 

4.  The  Cambridge  Plan 135 

5.  The  Differentiated-Course  Plan 136 

6.  A  Teacher  Efficiency  Score  Card 254 


•  •.  •••  •.  •  •    • 

•   •*•     •••    ••«• 

•»     ••      •••      • 


CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION  AND  CONTROL 

PART  I 
THE  NATURE  OF  THE  PROBLEM 


CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 
AND  CONTROL 

CHAPTER  I 

THE  MEANING  AND  AIM  OF  EDUCATION 

^  Outline  of  Chapter 

1.  Education  as  the  free  ejcpression  of  natire  impulse  —  Education  essential  to  life  —  The 
necessity  for  personal  adjustment  —  Ideals  and  actions  essentially  related. 

2.  Education  as  inhibition  in  terms  of  social  demand  —  Education  not  wholly  individ- 
ualistic —  Learning  to  meet  social  demands  —  Natural  veratis  artificial  education. 

3.  The  general  aim  of  the  school  —  No  opposition  between  social  and  individualistic 
bases  of  aim  —  General  aim  from  child's  point  of  view  —  General  aim  from  society's  view- 
point —  Need  for  specific  statement  of  aims. 

4.  The  more  specific  aims  of  the  school  — ■  (a)  Health  and  physical  vigor  as  an  aim ; — 
(6)  Morality  as  an  aim  —  (c)  Knowledge  as  an  aim  —  Knowledge  useful  for  action  —  (d) 
The  vocational  or  utilitarian  aim  —  Right  and  wrong  interpretations  of  this  aim  —  (c)  The 
aesthetic  aim  —  (J)  Other  aims. 

6.  Summary  —  References  —  Questions. 

1.  Education  as  the  free  expression  of  native  impulse 

No  one  is  in  greater  need  of  a  clear  conception  of  what 
education  means  than  is  the  classroom  teacher.  The  one 
who  is  to  direct  the  child  in  the  long  program  of  becoming 
a  man  or  woman,  must  have  some  notion  of  what  that  pro- 
gram involves.  It  is  not  enough  merely  to  learn  a  verbal 
definition  of  education,  such  as  Plato,  or  Milton,  or  Her- 
bert Spencer  wrote,  and  then  go  on  in  the  traditional  way, 
"  hearing  recitations."  Education  will  mean  "  life,'*  or 
"  preparation  for  life,"  or  "  development,"  or  "  growth," 
or  "  adjustment,"  or  "  change,"  in  a  real  and  vital  sense, 
only  when  the  teacher  manages  the  school  in  those  terms. 

Education  essential  to  life.  We  are  too  often  prone  to 
forget  that  whatever  produces  change  or  growth  in  the  child. 


4  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

is  in  that  sense  educating  him,  and  that  at  most  the  school 
plays  but  a  small  part  in  the  sum  total  of  a  child's  training. 
However,  the  fact  that  most  of  our  education  is  obtained 
in  a  way  purely  incidental  to  ordinary  life  procedure  only 
lays  a  heavier  responsibility  upon  the  school  for  making 
the  most  of  that  small  amount  of  time  which  is  devoted 
^ipcifically  to  school  work.  If  the  school  is  to  live  up  to 
this  responsibility,  it  must  give  the  child  no  false  directions. 

Less  than  two  centuries  ago  Rousseau  saw  that  learning 
was  essential  to  living,  and  suggested  what  has  been  more 
clearly  stated  since,  namely,  that  the  very  same  laws  which 
underlie  the  processes  of  ordinary  life  activities  are  the 
fundamental  laws  of  learning  in  the  school.  This  seems 
obvious  enough  when  stated,  but,  lest  we  might  commit 
it  to  memory  as  one  more  interesting  pedagogical  axiom 
to  be  remembered,  but  not  appHed  in  managing  a  school, 
let  us  examine  the  suggestion  more  closely. 

The  necessity  for  personal  adjustment.  First  of  all, 
when  the  child  finds  himself  in  a  new  situation  in  the  nur- 
sery among  his  toys,  on  the  lawn  with  his  dog,  or  in  a 
quarrel  with  another  child,  learning  is  essential  if  he  is 
to  succeed  in  making  the  adjustment  which  he  desires  to 
make.  Since  all  of  life  is  new  to  the  child  at  first,  —  all 
people,  all  places,  all  things,  all  his  own  movements  even, 
—  it  follows  that  necessity  for  learning  confronts  him  at 
every  tiun.  And  this  idea  of  necessity^  as  a  featiu-e  of  the 
learning  situation  outside  of  school,  is  too  frequently  over- 
looked when  we  enter  the  classroom,  where  we  too  often 
attempt  to  manage  children  in  terms  of  adult  notions.  The 
nmnberless  movements  of  the  child  —  his  looking,  his  lis- 
tening, his  turning,  his  touching  everything  —  are  neces- 
sary parts  of  the  continuous  process  of  making  himself 
comfortable  in  the  midst  of  many  strange  situations.  The 
school  should  not  attempt  to  put  an  end  to  this  ceaseless 


MEANING  AND  AIM  OF  EDUCATION  6 

wiggling,  for  it  is  thus,  bit  by  bit,  that  the  child  constructs 
the  world  he  will  live  in  as  an  adult. 

The  school  must  help  the  child  to  create  new  needs  for 
himself,  of  course,  but  it  must  take  care  not  to  confuse 
things  really  needed  with  things  imposed  from  without. 

Ideas  and  actions  essentially  related.  Again,  if  we  watch 
the  child  as  he  is  learning  in  his  big  free  world  out  of  dooi^ 
as  when  he  is  shouting  from  the  top  of  a  tree,  or  bending 
over  a  puddle  trying  to  capture  a  poUiwog,  or  taking  to 
his  new  toboggan  for  his  first  slide  down  the  snowy  hillside, 
we  note  a  peculiar  eagerness  in  his  tones  and  movements 
which  tells,  not  only  that  he  is  swinging  forward  to  meet 
these  adjustments  with  a  will,  but  that  all  the  vigor  of  his 
will  is  accompanied  by  a  feeling  of  exhilaration  and  of  joy 
in  the  doing  and  shouting.  It  is  no  set  task,  or  master  from 
without,  but  the  feeling  of  mastery  within  that  drives  him 
to  achievement  after  achievement. 

With  him  there  are  no  ideas  without  actions  to  carry 
them  out,  no  mere  listening  or  learning  about  things,  but 
in  this  real  world  of  his  all  learning  is  accompanied  by  do- 
ing. Various  psychological  terms  come  to  mind  here,  such 
as  interest,  feeling,  will,  etc.,  but  we  need  not  pause  for 
such  an  analysis  of  the  process  of  learning.  Our  interest  is 
rather  to  describe  what  a  few  simple  observations  may 
bring  to  Ught  as  we  examine  the  process  under  natural,  as 
opposed  to  artificial,  circumstances,  to  sketch  a  true  pic- 
ture of  that  process  as  it  is  taking  place  according  to  nature. 

2.  EdiLcation  as  inhibition  in  terms  of  social  demand 

Education  not  wholly  individualistic.  But  this  is  the 
meaning  of  education  as  it  pleases  the  child  to  educate  him- 
self, and  not  as  it  may  please  others  to  have  him  educated. 
And  yet  the  school  we  are  to  manage  is  not  a  school  of 
Robinson  Crusoes,  but    a  school   in  a  democratic  State. 


6  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

Wherever  we  find  a  child,  —  on  the  street,  on  the  play- 
ground, at  the  market-place,  in  the  bank,  or  church,  or 
dining-car,  —  he  is  forever  inhibiting  his  own  first  impulses 
in  order  to  meet  the  likes,  or  maybe  the  commands,  of 
others.  Obedience  is  the  word,  so  important  in  the  proper 
exercise  of  our  rights  and  duties  in  a  social  world. 
^JEducation,  then,  has  a  broader  meaning  than  we  have 
outlined  above.  It  is  not  a  mere  matter  of  following  one's 
own  interest  or  enthusiasm.  It  is  not  so  individualistic  as 
that.  In  the  same  sense  that  a  child  feels  impelled  to  climb 
the  highest  tree,  he  may  also  feel  impelled  to  restrain  him- 
self where  his  companion's  rights  or  wishes  are  involved. 
But  this  restraint  is  a  different  kind  of  experience,  and  will 
often  be  exercised  with  reluctance  rather  than  with  pleas- 
ure. Yet  obedience  to  the  will  or  the  wishes  of  others  is 
essential  in  a  social  life,  where  cooperation  is  the  basis  of 
unity,  so  we  are  also  concerned  with  the  meaning  of  this 
kind  of  learning  as  we  see  it  in  process  outside  of  the  school, 
and  ask:  How  does  the  child  learn  the  sort  of  obedience  or 
cooperation  or  inhibition  which  the  social  world  will  demand 
of  him? 

Learning  to  meet  social  demands.  A  child's  first  im- 
pulse is  likely  to  be  to  refuse  to  share  his  sled  with  his  play- 
mate, whereupon  he  shortly  finds  himseK  playing  quite 
alone.  Upon  the  playground  he  insists  that  the  game  shall 
be  tag  and  not  ball.  Soon  the  game  of  ball  is  in  full  swing, 
and  while  he  stands  pouting  he  is  embarrassed  with  ques- 
tions as  to  whether  he  has  been  hurt.  He  takes  his  own 
time  crossing  a  busy  street  and  is  shocked  when  the  police- 
man suddenly  pulls  him  from  in  front  of  a  passing  vehicle. 
At  a  public  gathering  he  talks  in  a  hoarse  whisper  and  sud- 
denly finds  himself  being  stared  at.  Thus  it  is  that  the 
world  teaches  him  to  obey  the  laws  of  common  social 
usage.  It  is  not  a  mere  case  of  being  suppressed,  but  a  case 


MEANING  AND  AIM  OF  EDUCATION  7 

of  making  an  adjustment  where  others  besides  himself  are 
concerned.  The  boy  shares  his  sled  with  the  other  children 
rather  than  suffer  that  feeling  of  loneliness.  He  enters  the 
game  selected  by  other  children,  he  moves  rapidly  and  at- 
tentively in  crossing  the  busy  street,  and  ceases  to  whisper 
in  the  pubUc  assembly,  all  because  he  desires  the  social 
sanction  to  his  acts.  That  is,  he  has  been  changed  from  a 
mere  individual  to  a  social  person. 

But  learning  to  restrain  our  impulses  is  not  always  a 
disagreeable  experience.  Our  contact  with  others  is  not 
always  a  clash.  The  most  delightful  team  work  the  child 
does  on  the  playground  involves  a  continuous  process  of 
inhibiting  his  own  impulses.  It  is  a  matter  of  obedience 
to  the  rules  of  the  game;  not  obedience  which  suppresses, 
but  obedience  which  directs  and  gives  meaning  to  the  ac- 
tivity. 

Natural  versus  artificial  education.  Education,  then,  is 
doing,  acting  out  one's  own  or  another's  will,  experiencing, 
adjusting  one's  self  to  real  situations,  conforming  or  coop- 
erating here,  resisting  or  striking  out  alone  there,  always 
answering  to  the  call  of  necessity  with  ideas,  but  with 
ideas  put  into  immediate  execution.  It  is  this  latter  point 
which  seems  to  contrast  the  meaning  of  education  as  nature 
provides  it  with  that  we  see  in  the  formal,  isolated,  infor- 
mational education  which  we  too  often  find  in  the  school. 
It  is  not  merely  to  contrast  the  ideal  with  the  real  and 
practical  meaning  of  education,  but  rather  to  force  upon 
us  the  simple  fact  that  education  is  merely  the  natural 
process  of  making  needed  adjustments  to  our  social,  phys- 
ical, aesthetic,  moral,  and  intellectual  environment,  and 
that  the  world  regards  that  man  as  educated  who  makes 
those  adjustments  accurately,  speedily,  and  sympatheti- 
cally. Education  must  therefore  mean  not  merely  growth, 
or  adjustment,  but  growth  or  adjustment  with  respect  to 


8  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

the  world  in  which  the  child  lives,  and  with  respect  to  sit- 
uations which  are  his  very  own. 

3,  The  general  aim  of  the  school 

No  opposition  between  social  and  individualistic  bases 
of  aim.  What,  then,  should  be  the  aim  of  the  school?  Obvi- 
ously it  should  be  to  facilitate  the  processes  of  growth 
described  above.  These  are  extremely  broad  in  their  scope 
and  significance,  including  as  they  do  the  physical,  the 
intellectual,  the  aesthetic,  the  moral,  the  economic,  and  the 
social,  and  involving  modes  of  activity  peculiar  to  each 
of  these  types  of  experience. 

Oiu"  aim,  then,  must  be  cognizant  not  only  of  the  needs 
of  the  individual,  but  Ukewise  of  the  needs  of  society.  Nor 
should  we  assume  that  these  are  at  cross-purposes  with 
each  other.  No  child  is  going  to  live  outside  of  society,  and 
since  he  is  what  he  is  because  of  the  life  his  own  and  thou- 
sands of  generations  before  him  have  lived,  it  is  futile  to 
argue  that  the  social  and  individual  instincts  and  impulses 
are  at  war  with  each  other.  It  has  been  well  said  that  "  the 
individual's  normal  growth  lands  him  in  essential  soUdarity 
with  his  fellows,  and  that  through  the  performance  of  his 
social  duties  and  privileges  the  individual  advances  to  his 
highest  and  piurest  individuality."  ^ 

The  biological  basis  which  educators  have  to  offer  for 
such  a  statement  lies  in  the  social  as  well  as  the  personal 
nature  of  that  equipment  with  which  we  are  born,  and 
which  we  therefore  do  not  have  to  get  by  education.  On 
the  personal  side,  the  child  does  not  have  to  learn  to  cry, 
to  wink,  to  take  food,  to  shrink  from  a  blow  or  a  ferocious- 
looking  animal;  he  does  not  have  to  learn  how  to  feel  hun- 
ger, fear,  and  wonder.   On  the  social  side  he  does  not  have 

*  See  Baldwin,  J.  Mark.  The  Individual  and  Society.  (The  Gorham 
Press.  Boston,  1911.) 


MEANING  AND  AIM  OF  EDUCATION  9 

to  leam  to  imitate  others,  to  enjoy  group  life,  to  feel  bash- 
fulness,  sympathy,  and  shame.  True,  as  he  grows  he  will 
consciously  inhibit  and  modify  these  native  tendencies  to 
act,  but  they  are  there,  as  original  equipment,  and  quite 
as  many  seem  designed  to  serve  a  social  as  a  purely  indi- 
viduaHstic  end. 

General  aim  from  child's  point  of  view.  In  spite  of  this 
substantial  unity  of  social  and  personal  elements  in  the 
child's  nature,  however,  there  is  still  the  practical  possi- 
bility that  the  strong-willed  individual  may  dominate  the 
group  to  the  extent  of  subordinating  society  to  his  own  self- 
ish ends.  Also  the  reverse  of  this  may  happen,  in  which 
the  child's  individuality  is  suppressed  by  the  demands  of 
society,  and  so  be  permitted  to  play  but  a  small  part  in  his 
social  functioning.  Either  extreme  is  undesirable.  To  di- 
rect the  child  in  discovering  the  proper  balance  and  re- 
lationship between  these  two  sets  of  interests  would  seem 
to  be  the  general  aim  of  the  school,  so  far  as  the  individual 
child  is  concerned. 

General  aim  from  society's  viewpoint.  Wherever  society 
is  highly  organized,  it  must,  like  the  individual,  become 
self-conscious,  and  for  the  sake  of  its  own  preservation, 
comfort,  and  progress  must  direct  its  energies  with  a  clear 
purpose  toward  these  ends.  The  school  has  arisen  as  an 
institution  to  serve  this  very  function,  and  if  this  funda- 
mental meaning  of  the  school  were  more  fully  realized  by 
the  teacher,  then  this  social  responsibility  or  aim  of  edu- 
cation would  express  itself  more  fully  in  the  organization, 
management,  and  instruction  of  the  school. 

Concretely,  this  means  that  the  school  is  not  only  to  give 
direction  to  free  individual  expression,  but  also  to  bring 
this  free  individual  to  a  consciousness  of  his  appropriate 
and  rightful  privileges  and  responsibilities  as  a  member  of 
society.  It  will  acquaint  him  not  only  with  the  form  of  our 


10  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

government,  but  with  the  meaning  of  citizenship.  It  will 
teach  him  not  merely  to  respect  authority,  but  to  feel  a 
sense  of  loyalty  to  the  principles  which  that  authority  is 
designed  to  protect.  In  other  words,  it  will  so  shape  its 
organization  and  instruction  as  to  give  the  child  a  fund 
of  knowledge  and  experience  which  will  help  him  to  dis- 
cover both  the  opportunities  and  the  Umitations  within 
which  he  may  hope  to  find  his  highest  individual  freedom. 
This  defines  the  general  aim  of  the  school  from  the  stand- 
point of  society. 

Need  for  specific  statement  of  aims.  This  general  state- 
ment of  aim  should  afford  the  teacher  a  point  of  view  from 
which  to  approach  the  task  of  managing  a  school,  and  an 
ideal  to  direct  and  inspire  her  in  her  work.  For  the  more 
intimate  guides  to  action,  however,  it  is  necessary  to  con- 
sider aims  which  are  more  immediate.  The  owner  of  a  fac- 
tory not  only  sets  up  business  success  as  his  ultimate  aim, 
but  various  aspects  of  this  larger  purpose  —  the  purchase 
of  raw  materials  at  the  lowest  price,  the  most  economical 
organization  of  his  plant,  the  simplest  and  clearest  method 
of  accoimting,  a  knowledge  of  markets  —  present  them-* 
selves  as  clear  and  definite  problems,  or  aims,  through 
which  alone  the  ultimate  goal  of  business  success  can  be 
attained. 

So  in  education,  that  aim  which  looks  for  a  perfect  ad- 
justment of  the  individual  to  society  must  be  made  defi- 
nite and  concrete  for  immediate  and  practical  use  in  the 
classroom.  To  become  socially  efficient  in  the  sense  of  being 
capable  of  rendering  the  greatest  possible  contribution  to 
himianity,  as  well  as  to  have  capacity  for  enjoying  to  the 
fullest  the  richest  gifts  of  others,  means  thai  we  must  train 
Off  ediLcaie  children  physicallyy  economicaUyy  intellectually ^ 
morally,  and  cesthetically.  Each  of  these  interests  then  be- 
comes a  definite  problem  in  education,  so  that  when  we  say 


MEANING  AND  AIM  OF  EDUCATION  11 

the  school  is  aiming  at  physical  training,  the  task  becomes 
much  narrower  than  when  we  make  the  aim  social  adjust- 
ment or  efficiency. 

An  examination  of  each  of  these  narrower  aims  should 
therefore  help  to  make  clear  the  more  specific  terms  in 
which  the  school  is  to  be  managed.  It  is  not  to  be  assiuned, 
however,  that  any  one  of  these  narrower  aims  can  be 
achieved  entirely  apart  from  the  others.  We  can  hardly 
think  of  any  kind  of  physical  training  that  does  not  involve 
intellectual  activity,  and  much  of  it  is  closely  associated 
with  moral  and  social  training.  In  outlining  an  aim,  there- 
fore, we  are  but  defining  the  point  of  emphasis  of  the  cur- 
riculum, or  of  the  lessons  or  instruction  in  question. 

^.   The  more  specific  aims  of  the  school 

(a)  Health  and  physical  vigor  as  an  aim.  With  the 
ancient  Greeks  physical  education  was  institutionaHzed 
in  a  national  sense.  But  for  more  than  a  thousand  years 
this  worthy  aim  of  the  school  was  buried  beneath  the 
ascetic  ideals  of  the  mediaeval  monk,  and,  aside  from  the 
emphasis  which  chivalry  placed  upon  this  phase  of  train- 
ing, the  school  gave  little  attention  to  the  welfare  of  the 
body  till  well  into  the  nineteenth  centiuy.  But  the  de- 
veloping humanitarian  movement  of  recent  times  could 
not  overlook  such  a  responsibility  for  the  school,  and,  like 
every  other  new  interest  of  our  age,  this  problem  has  been 
attacked  by  science,  and  one  of  the  larger  contributions  to 
educational  thought  in  recent  decades  has  been  the  idea 
that  care  for  the  health  and  the  normal  growth  and  devel- 
opment of  the  child  are  legitimate  functions  of  the  school. 

This  conception  represents  the  newer  phase  of  the  work 
in  physical  education,  and  is  important  in  bringing  the 
physician  and  teacher  together  in  the  task  of  producing  a 
sound  mind  in  a  sound  body.    This  gives  to  medicine  a 


1«  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

positive  and  constructive  as  opposed  to  a  negative  or  merely 
curative  aim,  and  brings  to  its  aid  the  constant  care  which 
can  be  exercised  only  by  the  school.  As  a  result  our  school 
work  in  formal  gymnastics  is  now  being  reorganized  and  re- 
directed by  this  newer  aim,  and  plays  and  games  which 
were  once  indulged  in  for  social  reasons  only,  are  taking 
the  place  of  much  of  the  former  drill.  The  social  and  moral 
values  are  not  lost  in  this  new  work,  but  the  health  value 
is  greatly  enhanced,  and  mere  physical  strength  is  broad- 
ened to  include  motor  control  and  the  expression  of  per- 
sonality or  character. 

(b)  Morality  as  an  aim.  Morality  is  not  a  mere  matter 
of  doing  right  or  being  honest,  but  of  knowing  when  and 
where  to  do  right  and  be  honest;  it  is  not  merely  a  matter 
of  not  stealing,  but  of  standing  positively  and  actively  for 
the  protection  of  society  against  stealing,  and  of  learning 
how  to  earn  an  honest  living. 

This  makes  the  moral  aim  extremely  broad  and  com- 
prehensive, to  be  sure,  but  moraUty  is  a  big  fact  in  a  social 
worid.  There  are  points  of  emphasis  here,  however,  such 
as  habits  of  personal  cleanliness,  fair  play  in  group  games, 
respect  for  elders,  all  matters  of  common  honesty  and 
politeness,  ideals  of  civic  honor  and  of  pubUc  service,  and 
knowledge  and  judgment  concerning  the  common  moral 
situations  to  be  met  in  ordinary  community  life.  Training 
in  these  directions  is  essential,  and  practically  achievable 
for  the  school.  With  the  ever-increasing  tendency  of  mod- 
em life  to  dissipate  the  moral  influence  of  the  home,  this 
responsibility  of  the  school  cannot  be  shifted.  The  idea  of 
service  and  cooperation,  as  opposed  to  selfishness  in  these 
and  other  habits  and  ideals,  and  the  ability  to  judge  the 
right,  are  the  specific  points  at  which  the  moral  aim  finds 
its  issue  in  the  management  and  instruction  of  children. 

(c)  Knowledge  as  an  aim.    Knowledge  is  perhaps  the 


MEANING  AND  AIM  OF  EDUCATION  13 

most  obvious  aim  of  all,  and  the  one  which  has  received  the 
most  emphasis  in  the  school.  To  this  there  might  be  little 
objection  were  it  not  true  that  in  practice  we  have  thought 
of  knowledge  only  in  the  narrow  sense  of  information,  the 
teacher's  problem  having  been  mainly  that  of  seeing  that 
children  accumulate  a  prescribed  quantity  of  facts.  The 
school  has  too  rarely  raised  the  question  as  to  what  knowl- 
edge is  for,  and  as  a  consequence  its  actual  use  has  been 
too  largely  that  of  mere  intellectual  ornamentation. 

As  a  practical  school  aim,  knowledge  must  be  regarded 
from  the  standpoint  of  its  use,  rather  than  from  that  of  a 
finished  product.  Only  when  it  has  been  appUed  to  the 
solution  of  tasks,  old  and  new,  has  its  full  value  been  real- 
ized. With  young  children,  especially,  knowledge  must  not 
remain  isolated.  With  them  it  must  be  knowledge  how,  — 
how  to  skate,  how  to  sing,  how  to  sew,  how  to  speak  and 
write  correctly,  how  to  be  polite,  how  to  enjoy  music  and 
poetry,  —  each  of  which  will  yield  information,  but  infor- 
mation tied  up  with  conduct. 

We  seek  knowledge  only  that  we  may  act.  Recognizing 
this  meaning  of  knowledge  as  the  one  of  first  importance 
for  the  school  is  only  taking  account  of  the  natural  motive 
a  child  has  for  getting  knowledge,  namely,  in  order  that 
he  may  do  something.  Gradually,  however,  as  the  child  is 
able  to  conceive  future  or  remote,  as  well  as  immediate, 
needs,  information  not  immediately  applicable  may  be- 
come a  legitimate  aim.  A  knowledge  of  geometry,  of  the 
Euphrates  Valley,  of  the  technique  of  language  construc- 
tion, of  a  foreign  tongue,  may  to  a  considerable  degree  re- 
main in  the  child's  mind  as  information,  but  always  with 
the  idea  that  they  are  to  be  applied  in  getting  more  knowl- 
edge in  the  college  or  university  course  later  on. 

This  brings  us  to  a  particular  point  of  emphasis  in  con- 
nection with  knowledge  as  an  aim,  and  that  is  in  the  use 


14  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

of  knowledge  in  getting  more  knowledge.  ^  How  to  study, 
once  a  motive  for  study  is  present,  is  a  constant  problem, 
not  only  in  the  school  but  everywhere.  Not  to  recognize 
this  is  to  ignore  one  of  the  most  important  functions  of  the 
school.  We  must  not  only  impart  the  accumulated  knowl- 
edge of  the  past,  but  cultivate  method  and  zeal  in  getting 
new  knowledge.  In  a  democracy  every  child  must  be  a  dis- 
coverer. 

(d)  The  vocational  or  utilitarian  aim.  The  cultiu-al  and 
the  utilitarian  in  education  have  long  been  set  over  against 
each  other  as  if  mutually  exclusive;  and  so  they  were  in  a 
sense.  When  education  was  for  the  leisure  class  only  it  was 
not  necessary  that  it  should  be  of  a  sort  useful  in  making 
a  living;  consequently  a  knowledge  of  the  classics  and  of 
mathematics  served  well  to  separate  the  "  cultured  *'  from 
the  "  uncultured."  In  those  days  industrial  life  was  sim- 
ple, and  by  a  crude  and  wasteful  system  of  apprenticeship 
the  industries  trained  their  own  workers.  But  to-day, 
with  the  rising  tide  of  democracy  and  with  industries 
highly  mechanized,  education  is  for  all,  and  the  demand  is 
for  trained  workers. 

This  necessitates  a  new  definition  of  culture,  which  is 
slowly  but  surely  working  itself  out  under  the  new  condi- 
tions. It  also  places  upon  the  school  the  new  and  impor- 
tant task  of  training  for  other  than  the  merely  professional 
vocations.  There  are  the  trade,  industrial,  commercial, 
agricultural,  and  home-making  pursuits  to  train  for,  and 
the  school  is  asked  to  formulate  aims  to  meet  these  new 
demands.  Such  aims  cannot  be  formed  by  pushing  the 
responsibility  back  upon  the  occupations.  The  school  must 
see  in  these  conditions  the  demand  for  practical  as  opposed 
to  purely  theoretical  study,  and  arrange  its  curriculum, 
equipment,  and  class  exercises  accordingly. 

^  See  chap,  xin  for  a  fuller  treatment  of  this  problem. 


MEANING  AND  AIM  OF  EDUCATION  15 

Right  and  wrong  interpretations  of  this  aim.  The  dan- 
ger which  the  school  faces  in  meeting  this  new  aim  Ues  in 
the  natural  incHnation  to  interpret  this  new  training  in 
terms  of  its  disciplinary  value  at  the  one  extreme,  or  in 
terms  of  the  degree  in  which  it  merely  faciUtates  the  earn- 
ing of  money  at  the  other.  No  such  false  interpretation 
as  the  former,  or  narrow  interpretation  as  the  latter,  can 
possibly  be  accepted  if  we  insist  upon  the  meaning  and 
general  aim  of  education  which  we  have  set  forth  above. 
No  training  could  be  counted  utilitarian  from  the  school's 
point  of  view  if  it  is  so  narrow  in  its  use  as  to  be  unsocial. 
It  is  not  training  to  earn  a  Uving  merely  that  is  wanted, 
but  training  how  to  hve  intelligently  and  happily  on  what 
we  earn  as  well. 

(e)  The  aesthetic  aim.  To  be  able  to  enjoy  the  beauties 
in  nature  and  in  art  is  to  have  access  to  constant  sources 
of  inspiration.  To  be  able  to  enjoy  a  landscape,  or  to  catch 
the  vision  of  the  poet,  the  musician,  or  the  painter,  is  at 
least  in  some  degree  possible  for  us  all.  Landscape  and 
cloud  effects  cannot  be  fenced  in,  art  galleries  and  libraries 
are  open  to  all  ahke,  and  however  busy  we  may  be  with 
the  problem  of  earning  our  bread,  yet  there  is  time  amid 
the  toil  for  us  to  tap  these  rich  sources  of  pleasure  if  only 
we  learn  how  to  see  them. 

Aside  from  the  individual  pleasures  which  children  may 
derive  from  such  sources,  the  school  must  not  ignore  the 
fact  that  common  aesthetic  ideals  and  pleasures  rank  along 
with  common  pohtical  and  reUgious  ideals  as  bases  for 
social  solidarity.  When  two  people  find  that  they  see  the 
same  beauty  in  a  picture  they  are  thrilled  by  the  discov- 
ery of  a  new  means  of  communication.  If  all  the  people 
who  visit  the  park  could  see  the  beauty  which  the  artist 
finds  in  the  shrubbery-fringed  lagoon,  the  park  would  by 
force  of  this  fact  become  a  social  center.  We  cannot  all  go 


16  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

to  the  park,  or  to  the  opera,  but  we  can  all  see  the  fields 
and  the  sky,  we  can  aU  read  poetry  and  enjoy  pictures, 
and  we  can  all  listen  to  Victrola  music,  and  it  is  the  busi- 
ness of  the  school  to  make  of  these  aesthetic  experiences  a 
common  language. 

(f)  Other  alms.  We  have  by  no  means  exhausted  the 
niunber  of  aims.  The  ones  we  have  mentioned  might  be 
made  still  more  specific  and  detailed  as  we  apply  them  in  se- 
lecting our  subject-matter  and  in  working  out  our  methods, 
and  many  others  might  be  stated.  We  might  speak  of  skill, 
of  information,  of  good  manners,  of  respect  for  expert  work, 
of  methods  of  study,  of  graceful  movement,  of  industry, 
of  honesty,  of  civic  duty,  of  good  recitations,  of  school 
loyalty,  of  good  speUing,  of  rapid  addition,  etc.,  as  aims, 
for  training  to  all  of  these  ends  is  within  the  legitimate 
function  of  the  school.  Yet  each  of  these  is  included  under 
one  or  more  of  the  above  captions,  and  to  discuss  them 
further  would  be  to  discuss  separate  phases  of  the  subject 
which  this  book  can  cover  but  briefly. 

The  point  to  be  emphasized  here  is  that  the  teacher  needs 
to  have  a  broad  conception  of  the  meaning  and  end  of  her 
work,  and  some  clear  notion  of  the  several  larger  purposes, 
in  order  that  the  details  of  daily  problems  may  be  dealt 
with  in  their  proper  perspective.  Is  the  particular  plan 
selected  for  handling  a  given  situation,  such  as  the  pass- 
ing of  wraps  or  the  collecting  of  papers,  conducive,  in  as 
large  a  way  as  is  possible,  not  only  to  meeting  those  imme- 
diate needs,  but  in  giving  training  and  experience  in  the 
direction  of  the  broad  social  and  moral  aim  of  the  school? 
This  is  the  question  which  the  teacher  must  keep  constantly 
in  mind  in  the  conduct  of  her  school,  if  she  is  to  apply  any- 
thing Uke  scientific  method  to  its  management. 


MEANING  AND  AIM  OF  EDUCATION  17 


6.  Chapter  summary 

We  have  seen  that  education  gets  its  meaning  from  the  character 
of  human  nature  itself.  Not  human  nature  in  isolation,  or  quies- 
cent, but  human  nature  in  society,  and  in  action.  Starting  from 
one  set  of  instincts,  education  is  free  self-expression;  from  another, 
it  is  the  inhibition  of  the  impulsive  self  in  terms  of  the  claims  of 
society.  The  conflict  between  these  views  is  only  apparent,  and 
the  aim  of  the  school  is  to  facilitate  the  child's  development  in 
both  these  directions,  to  the  end  that  the  man  will  be  also  the 
citizen. 

The  teacher  needs  to  state  her  school  aims  in  the  light  of  these 
larger  facts  and  principles.  This  can  be  done  only  when  we  think 
of  the  social  and  individual  needs  which  the  child  must  face  in  his 
expanding  world.  Every  child  must  maintain  life  and  keep  himself 
physically  fit;  he  must  deal  justly  with  his  fellows;  he  must  ration- 
alize his  conduct,  and  know  the  world  of  facts  with  which  he  must 
cope;  he  must  earn  his  bread;  and  he  must  enjoy  life.  Thus  we  set 
up  the  physical,  the  moral,  the  knowledge,  the  vocational,  and  the 
Aesthetic  aims,  in  terms  of  which  the  school,  the  curriculum,  the 
children  must  be  organized  and  directed. 

REFERENCES  FOR  ADDITIONAL  READING 

Bagley,  W.  C,  The  Educative  Process,  chap.  ni. 

Butler,  N.  M.,  The  Meaning  of  Educaiion,  chap.  i. 

Strayer,  Geo.  D.,  ^4  Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process,  chap.  i. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  What  are  some  of  the  most  important  things  a  child  learns  outside  of 
the  school? 

a.  Does  the  school  offer  any  opportunity  to  the  child  to  learn  these 
same  things? 

b.  What  part  of  a  child's  school  experience,  if  any,  seems  to  you 
to  give  support  to  these  things? 

2.  Mention  some  school  experiences  which  are  designed  to  teach  the 
child  to  inhibit  his  own  selfish  impulses  in  favor  of  the  wishes  of  the 
group. 

8.  At  what  points  is  it  possible  to  misinterpret  the  cultural  and  utili- 
tarian aims  of  the  school  so  that  they  represent  conflicting  purposes? 
4.  In  what  sense  is  it  the  duty  of  the  school  to  teach  obedience? 


18  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

5.  In  what  way  may  supervised  play  be  useful  in  carrying  out  the  moral 
a-im  as  discussed  above? 

6.  Name  several  special  aims  which  could  be  appropriately  classified 
under  the  physical  aim.    Analyze  each  of  the  other  aims  similarly. 

7.  What  specific  and  what  general  aims  do  you  expect  to  achieve  by  a 
given  system  of  distributing  wraps? 

8.  Explain  the  influence  of  prizes  in  school  work  in  terms  of  their  ^ect 
on  social  and  moral  training. 

9.  If  to  impart  knowledge  is  one  of  your  aims,  what  school  work  do  you 
include  under  the  term  of  knowledge? 

10.  What  studies  would  be  most  useful  for  aesthetic  training? 

11.  Explain  the  function  of  a  well-decorated,  well-lighted  and  ventilated, 
properly-seated  and  equipped  room,  in  the  achievement  of  the  above 


CHAPTER  n 

THE  FUNCTION  OF  THE  AIM  IN  MANAGEMENT 

Odtlinb  of  Chapter 

1.  The  changing  point  of  view. 

2.  Theory  and  practice  must  join  hands  in  the  schoolroom  —  Traditional  ver$ia  per- 
sonal methods  in  management  —  Theory  vertus  tradition  —  Importance  of  the  modem 
social  aim  —  Means  and  method  dependent  on  aim. 

S.  A  clear  aim  makes  for  efficiency  —  Mistaking  means  for  ends  —  The  pin-fall-quiet 
theory  —  An  indefinite  aim  makes  for  loss  of  time  —  Relation  of  aim  to  motive  in  work  — 
Clear  aim  essential  in  habit  formation  —  A  clear  aim  insures  a  critical  attitude. 

4.  Summary  —  References^—  Questions. 

1.  The  changing  point  of  view 

The  traditional  schoolmaster  gave  little  thought  to  the 
why  of  his  work.  He  expected  the  children  to  learn  their 
lessons,  and  to  recite  them,  remembering  to  be  properly 
submissive  to  the  teacher's  authority,  which  authority  was 
symbohzed  by  a  long  list  of  rules  and  a  birch  rod,  both  con- 
spicuously displayed  in  the  classroom. 

Under  the  old  regime  there  was  little  thought  of  educa- 
tion as  development.  The  child  was  regarded  as  a  little 
man,  and  accordiugly  the  aims  of  instruction  and  manage- 
ment were  crudely  stated  in  terms  of  adult  needs.  This 
attitude  dominated  education  until  social  and  economic 
pressure  had  forced  upon  the  school  a  broader  function,  and 
until  a  more  scientific  knowledge  of  the  child,  of  society, 
and  of  the  educative  process  had  made  possible  a  reinterpre- 
tation  of  its  aims. 

To-day  the  school  is  expected  to  turn  out  a  definite  prod- 
uct. This  means  that  the  teacher  must  not  only  know  the 
materials  and  forces  with  which  she  must  work,  but  that 
she  must  be  able  to  shape  and  to  direct  these  to  the  ends 
desired. 


«0  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

2.  Theory  and  practice  must  join  hands  in  the  schoolroom 

Traditional  versus  personal  methods  in  management.  It 
is  not  enough  to  study  the  aims  of  teaching  as  we  study  a 
lesson  in  history.  As  our  study  of  the  child,  of  subject- 
matter,  and  of  society  gives  us  the  basic  principles  upon 
which  we  construct  our  general  educational  theory,  so  this 
theory  must  enter  into  the  making  of  the  plans  and  devices 
by  which  we  govern  children  in  the  schoolroom. 

It  is  much  easier  to  study  about  the  aims  of  school  man- 
agement than  it  is  to  keep  a  constant  check  on  one's  own 
teaching,  to  see  that  those  aims  are  being  reaUzed  in  the 
form  of  stronger,  more  intelligent,  and  more  socially  effec- 
tive children.  It  is  easier  to  accept  the  traditional  modes 
of  procedure  in  class  work,  to  apply  the  same  penalties  for 
petty  offenses,  to  keep  records,  give  tests,  etc.,  in  the  same 
way  year  in  and  year  out,  than  it  is  to  make  new  plans  to 
meet  the  changing  needs.  It  is  easier,  in  other  words,  to 
avoid  the  responsibility  of  knowing  the  definite  purpose  of 
each  plan  and  device  which  enters  into  the  management  of 
the  room,  of  stating  the  extent  to  which  that  plan  is  being 
realized,  and  then  of  revising  procediu^  where  shortage  in 
achievement  is  discovered.  That  is,  it  is  easier  to  dawdle, 
to  guess,  to  be  irresponsible,  than  it  is  to  apply  industry 
and  intelligence  in  the  execution  of  a  constructive  program 
which  has  been  planned  to  accomplish  a  given  end. 

Theory  versus  tradition.  When  we  can  give  no  scientific 
reason  for  doing  a  thing  we  usually  rely  upon  tradition  to 
guide  us.  The  mediaeval  dictum,  that  the  child  is  bom  in 
sin  and  is  therefore  by  natm«  bad,  gave  rise  to  a  pedagogi- 
cal practice  which  was  designed  to  suppress  all  native  im- 
pulses in  children,  and  to  enforce  a  rigid  discipline  through 
a  hard-and-fast,  machine-like  organization.  This  point  of 
view,  essentiaUy  characteristic  of  all  phases  of  mediaeval 


FUNCTION  OF  AIM  IN  MANAGEMENT  21 

civilization,  fastened  itself  upon  the  school  as  one  of  its 
most  harmful  traditions  —  harmful  because  it  prevented 
just  what  we  have  described  above  as  the  normal  process 
of  education.  That  tradition  is  not  as  yet  dead.  There  are 
the  militarists  in  school  management  to-day,  and  on  the 
whole  they  are  true  to  their  mediaeval  ancestry  in  the  sense 
that  they  offer  no  scientific  justification  for  their  practice. 
Their  aim  is  determined  for  them;  they  are  cogs  in  a  great 
and  ancient  machine  which  ignores  progress  as  the  funda- 
mental characteristic  and  ideal  of  our  age. 

Importance  of  the  modem  social  aim.  The  teacher  who 
has  developed  a  scientific  notion  of  the  aim  of  education, 
is  confronted  with  the  force  of  just  such  imreasoned  pres- 
sure as  this,  when  she  attempts  to  put  these  notions  into 
practice.  She  is  everywhere  hemmed  about  with  the  tradi- 
tions of  the  past,  and,  imless  she  is  willing  to  conduct  her 
school  in  terms  of  the  needs  of  a  civilization  that  no  longer 
exists,  she  must  guard  against  the  natural  tendency  to  take 
this  traditional  line  of  least  resistance.  The  only  way  to 
fortify  against  this  is  to  cease  to  be  directed  by  inspiration, 
or  luck,  to  provide  one's  self  with  a  rational  purpose,  adapted 
to  present-day  needs,  and  to  make  that  purpose  a  constant 
check  on  practice  at  every  turn. 

Means  and  method  dependent  upon  aim.  The  reason 
that  teaching  without  a  clear  aim  is  bound  to  lead  to  more 
or  less  chaotic  procedure  is  because  of  the  fundamental 
relation  between  the  end  sought  and  the  method  by  means 
of  which  that  end  is  to  be  realized.  If  I  do  not  have  clearly 
in  mind  what  it  is  I  wish  to  do,  I  can  scarcely  hope  to  choose 
the  most  intelligent  method  for  doing  it. 

When  a  fire  alarm  is  soimded,  every  teacher  and  pupil 
must  get  out  of  the  building  as  speedily  as  possible.  The 
fire  drill  is  a  method  of  training  children  in  those  particular 
types  of  cooperation  and  self-control  which  are  necessary 


«2  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

to  achieVe  this  end.  Certainly  such  cooperation  and  self- 
control  could  not  be  obtained  if  the  drill  called  the  children 
out  one  class  at  a  time.  This  illustrates  very  simply  how 
the  means,  or  method,  is  practically  determined  by  the  aim 
in  view.  In  other  words,  real  training  or  education  can  only 
result  when  the  conduct  or  management  is  directed  in  terms 
of  a  predetermined  aim.  Therefore,  any  management  which 
is  not  clear  and  specific  with  respect  to  its  aim  cannot  be 
economical,  or  in  the  highest  sense  educational.  It  is  almost 
as  true  to  say  that  the  aim  is  not  well  defined  until  the  plan 
by  means  of  which  that  aim  is  to  be  realized  is  fully  outlined. 
And  this  principle  applies  just  as  fully  in  the  details  of  learn- 
ing to  write,  or  to  draw,  as  it  does  in  the  movement  of  pupils, 
or  in  the  distribution  of  supplies. 

3.  A  clear  aim  makes  for  efficiency 

Mistaking  means  for  ends.  Since  the  method  and  the 
end  in  school  management  are  so  intimately  bound  to- 
gether, it  is  obvious  that  the  teacher  who  has  a  well-defined 
aim  has  taken  an  important  step  in  the  direction  of  effi- 
ciency. Efficiency  in  management  insists  first  of  all  upon 
getting  results,  and  in  getting  those  results  it  insists  that 
every  moment  of  time,  and  every  part  of  the  school  machinery, 
shall  give  an  educational  account  of  itself.  Or,  stating  it  neg- 
atively, that  no  false  moves  shall  be  made,  no  unsatisfac- 
tory habits  formed,  no  pm^ly  suppressive  measures  used, 
and  no  uncritical  procedure  followed. 

Every  teacher  will  readily  sanction  this,  but  it  must  be 
remembered  that  it  is  more  easily  read  than  practiced.  The 
do  side  to  school  management  is  a  problem  in  itself,  which 
every  beginning  teacher  must  face.  This  may  make  clear 
what  to  do,  and  what  not  to  do,  and  later  chapters  may 
explain  the  how,  but  there  will  still  be  left  the  actual  exe- 
cution, which  will  call  for  clear  thinking  and  persistent  effort. 


FUNCTION  OF  AIM  IN  MANAGEMENT  23 

The  pin-fall-quiet  theory.  Without  a  definite  notion  of 
what  is  to  be  accompHshed  one  may  easily  mistake  means 
for  ends.  A  quiet  schoolroom  is  only  a  means,  and  yet  how 
often  the  ancient  schoolmaster  has  prided  himself  upon 
being  able  to  hear  a  pin  fall  in  his  room.  How  often,  too, 
has  that  achievement  been  made  at  the  cost  of  a  free  and 
cheerful  atmosphere  of  work.  The  reason  a  schoolroom 
should  be  kept  quiet  is  that  quiet  is  one  of  the  conditions 
under  which  attention  can  be  concentrated,  work  can  be 
done,  and  right  work  habits  built  up. 

We  must  remember,  though,  that  the  habits  developed 
here  are  for  use  in  the  outside  world  where  there  are  many 
distractions.  Hence,  work  habits  which  are  developed  in 
an  absolutely  quiet  room  are  not  only  developed  under 
repressive  measures,  but  they  defeat  their  own  end  by  un- 
fitting the  child  for  thinking  and  working  under  normal  con- 
ditions outside  the  schoolroom.  This  is  but  a  single  illustra- 
tion of  how  the  teacher  without  a  clear  aim  is  misled  into 
thinking  her  task  is  done,  when  in  reality  it  has  only  begun. 

An  indefinite  aim  makes  for  loss  of  time.  U  a  clear  aim 
is  insisted  upon  throughout  the  entire  day,  then  recess 
periods  can  no  longer  be  thought  of  as  temporary  rehef 
from  hard  work.  They  may  mean  this,  but  they  must  mean 
more.  They  must  mean  play  or  change  of  work  which  does 
not  allow  a  large  percentage  of  the  children  to  stand  around 
as  if  waiting  for  the  next  thing  to  happen.  All  must  play, 
and  that  play  must  be  designed  to  yield  definite  social, 
recreational,  moral,  and  intellectual  values.  This  it  will  not 
do  if  left  undirected  and  aimless.  Play  must  be  supervised, 
just  as  study  is  supervised,  and  when  some  tangible  aim  is 
set  up  for  it  to  achieve  we  shall  realize  that  no  inconsid- 
erable part  of  a  child's  education,  as  defined  in  chapter  I, 
will  be  accomplished  diu-ing  these  moments  of  the  school 
day  which,  until  now,  have  been  regarded  as  waste  time. 


U  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

But  the  recess  period  is  not  the  only  point  at  which 
moments  slip  by  without  yielding  an  educational  output. 
How  much  time  is  consumed  in  getting  into  action  when 
the  class  assembles;  what  is  the  speediest  and  most  educa- 
tive method  of  distributing  supplies  and  wraps;  are  children 
permitted  to  bring  useless  and  impertinent  ideas  and  facts 
into  the  class  discussion;  is  a  pooriy  prepared  pupil  per- 
mitted to  consume  an  unreasonable  portion  of  the  class 
period  in  trying  to  bluff  through  a  recitation?  These  are 
among  the  hundreds  of  loose  joints  we  find  in  schoolroom 
work.  If  our  aim  insists  that  every  moment  shall  render 
educational  account  of  itself,  there  will  be  a  general  tight- 
ening up  of  the  program  throughout  the  day. 

Relation  of  aim  to  motive  in  work.  Time,  however,  is 
not  the  only  measure  of  waste  in  school  work.  Lack  of  a 
clear  aim  not  infrequently  provides  a  wrong  motive.  Thus 
children  may  march  into  the  room  in  good  order,  not  be- 
cause they  care  for,  or  see  any  point  to  that  kind  of  train- 
ing, but  for  fear  that  they  may  have  to  remain  after  hours 
and  study.  The  motive  here  is  fear  of  punishment,  and  not 
a  desire  to  cooperate  in  an  effective  method  of  getting  into 
the  room  quickly  and  in  good  order,  or  to  learn  to  walk  in 
good  form. 

Clear  aim  essential  in  habit  formation.  Likewise  in  the 
matter  of  habit  formation,  a  carefully  studied  aim  is  neces- 
sary to  insure  right  procedure.  To  develop  the  habit  of 
neatness  in  respect  to  language  papers,  and  carry  the  idea 
no  further,  is  to  build  up  a  habit  which,  unsupported  by 
others  of  its  kind,  is  so  specific  and  narrow  in  its  applica- 
tion as  to  be  next  to  useless  in  after  life.  How  much  better 
to  consider  the  full  importance  of  neatness  as  a  virtue,  and 
insist  upon  a  hundred  habits  of  neatness  instead  of  one. 
Neatness  in  all  written  work,  in  dress,  manners,  and 
wherever  it  applies,  indoors  or  out.  The  difference  between 


FUNCTION  OF  AIM  IN  MANAGEMENT  25 

these  two  conceptions  of  what  to  aim  at  in  the  matter  of 
formulating  plans  for  the  development  of  habits  of  neat- 
ness is  just  this:  in  the  one  case  the  habit  serves  one  narrow 
aim,  which  may  or  may  not  carry  over  into  letter  writing 
or  preparation  of  documents  in  after  life;  in  the  other  the 
single  habit  is  so  supported  by  others  as  to  make  it  a  guar- 
antee against  slovenliness  in  any  line  at  any  time.  It  is 
probable,  too,  that  the  building-up  of  the  large  number  of 
habits  of  neatness  will  consume  but  little  more  of  the 
teacher's  energy  and  time  than  will  the  driving  in  of  the 
isolated  habit  in  respect  to  language  papers  alone. 

A  clear  aim  insures  a  critical  attitude.  We  also  must  not 
fail  to  see  that  a  clear  aim  tends  to  keep  the  teacher  con- 
stantly critical  of  her  own  work.  She  does  not  follow  a 
plan  which  does  not  show  promise  of  bringing  about  cer- 
tain preconceived  results.  She  reads  books,  Kstens  to  ad- 
dresses, and  studies  the  reports  of  experiments  and  inves- 
tigations more  intelligently  because  at  every  point  they 
are  criticized  in  the  light  of  some  function  which  they  may 
perform  in  her  own  work.  She  is  more  sympathetic  with 
children,  because  her  aim  is  always  with  respect  to  the 
individual  child.  She  makes  the  greatest  possible  use  of 
supervision,  of  teachers'  meetings,  and  conferences  with 
her  principal,  because  she  does  not  listen  meekly  to  what 
her  superiors  tell  her  without  demanding  of  them  answers 
to  specific  questions  which  have  arisen  in  her  own  work,  a 
thing  she  could  not  do  if  she  had  not  constantly  held  her 
work  to  answer  in  terms  of  a  specific  end. 

4.  Chapter  summary 

To  summarize  the  ways  in  which  the  aim  functions  in  school 
management,  then,  let  us  remember  that  the  modern  school  has 
moved  away  from  the  old  hand-to-mouth  and  mechanical  modes 
of  school  management,  and  in  the  direction  of  a  scientifically- 
planned  procedure;  that  the  greatest  enemy  to  scientific  school 
management  is  the  ignorance  of  fundamental  principles,  and  the 


26  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

consequent  pressure  of  outworn  school  traditions;  that  sound 
theory  will  work;  that  a  clear  aim  involves  a  critical  study  of  the 
means  and  methods  by  which  the  aim  is  to  be  realized;  that  a  clear 
aim  leads  to  efficiency,  because  it  counts  every  moment  of  time, 
denaands  results,  and  discards  useless  machinery;  and  that  a  clear 
aim  reflects  itself  in  the  teacher's  habits  of  thought  and  work  and 
in  the  training  of  the  children. 

REFERENCES  FOR  ADDITIONAL  READING 

McMurry,  F.  M.,  How  to  Study  and  Teaching  How  to  Study,  chap.  m. 
Betts,  G.  H.,  Classroom  Method  and  Management,  chap.  m. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  In  what  ways  have  the  old  conceptions  of  school  management  failed, 
and  what  is  the  basis  of  the  new  conception.'* 

2.  How  has  the  mediaeval  doctrine  "that  the  child  is  by  nature  bad" 
disappeared,  and  what  has  been  the  influence  of  the  new  aim  on  school 
practice? 

8.  Show  by  concrete  illustrations  from  school-management  problems 
how  the  aim  very  largely  determines  the  method  of  procedure. 

4.  How  might  a  strict  adherence  to  the  principle  that  every  moment  of 
school  time  and  every  part  of  school  machinery  must  render  educa- 
tional account  of  itself  have  changed  your  own  program  when  you 
were  in  the  elementary  school,  in  the  high  school,  in  the  normal  school, 
in  college?  Is  this  principle  being  enforced  in  your  school? 

5.  Do  you  know  of  any  school,  or  system  of  schools,  which  is  carrying 
out  this  principle  with  respect  to  the  problems  of  play?  What  is  the 
most  suggestive  literature  on  the  subject  for  the  teacher  who  would 
like  to  work  out  such  a  plan? 

6.  How,  because  of  the  lack  of  a  clear  aim,  may  the  teacher  fail  to  see 
that  a  child  is  performing  a  task  from  an  entirely  wrong  motive,  and 
so  defeating  the  purpose  of  the  school? 

7.  Can  you  recall  any  wrong  or  inadequate  habits  which  you  formed  as  a 
pupil  in  school,  and  which  you  need  not  have  formed  if  the  teacher 
had  had  a  clear  aim  in  view? 

8.  Cite  cases  of  how  a  clear  aim  necessarily  makes  the  teacher  critical 
of  her  own  work. 

9.  How  will  the  teadier  who  works  to  a  plan  influence  the  children  in 
respect  to:  — 

a.  Systematic  methods  of  work? 

6.  Economizing  their  time  and  energy? 

c.  Actual  work  done,  amount  and  quality? 

d.  Attendance,  promptness,  tardiness,  etc.? 

e.  Discipline? 


CHAPTER  in 

HUMAN  FACTORS  CONCERNED 
Outline  of  Chapter 

1.  The  factors  enumerated  —  Divisions  of  this  book. 

2.  The  child  to  be  educated  —  The  period  of  infancy  —  Immaturity  an  educational  re- 
■ource  —  The  native  equipment  of  children. 

8.  The  school  and  the  native  equipment  of  children  —  The  task  of  the  school  —  The  play 
instinct  —  The  constructive  instinct  —  The  instinct  to  imitate  —  The  instinct  of  curiosity 
—  Other  instincts. 

4.  How  the  child  learns  —  The  function  of  the  senses  —  Principles  of  habit  formation. 

5.  The  problem  of  health  —  New  interest  in  health  questions  —  Health  problems  and 
school  work. 

6.  Individual  differences  —  No  two  children  alike  —  Significance  of  differences  for  the 
school. 

7.  Summary  —  References  —  Questions. 

1.  The  factors  enumerated 

Divisions  of  this  book.  In  our  brief  interpretation  of  the 
meaning  and  aims  of  education  we  have  had  in  mind:  first, 
the  native  equipment  of  the  child;  second,  the  fact  of 
continuous  development  or  growth  of  the  child;  and  third, 
the  physical  and  social  terms  in  which,  and  ends  to  which, 
that  growth  must  be  directed.  Accordingly,  any  adequate 
treatment  of  school  management  must  concern  itself  with 
three  large  problems,  namely:  the  chUd^  individual  and 
social,  as  the  objective  of  all  management;  the  process,  by 
which  the  environmental  conditions  are  to  be  used  in  exer- 
cising control  over  his  development,  or  over  the  methods 
by  which  his  development  shall  take  place;  and  the  teacher, 
the  agent  through  whom  society  directs  the  process.  These 
problems  will  constitute  the  subjects  for  Parts  II,  III,  and 
IV  of  this  book. 

2.  The  child  to  he  educated 

To  know  the  child  for  educational  purposes  means  te 
know  the  essential  facts  and  principles  regarding  the  child's 


88  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

nature  as  these  are  involved  in  his  development  toward 
the  intellectual,  physical,  moral,  vocational,  and  aesthetic 
aims  set  forth  above. 

The  period  of  infancy.  Biologically  the  child  is  imma 
ture,  both  with  respect  to  his  organs  and  with  respect  to  their 
functions.  It  is  noteworthy  that  this  immaturity  is  greater 
in  its  duration  than  obtains  with  any  other  animal  known. 

According  to  John  Fiske,  who  first  called  attention  to  the 
importance  of  this  period  of  prolonged  infancy,  those  organs 
and  functions  which  are  perfect  at  birth  rarely  change  very 
much,  and  are  changed  with  great  diflBculty;  whereas  those 
which  are  not  perfect  at  birth  are  easily  capable  of  change. 
Not  only,  then,  are  early  perfections,  physical  and  mental, 
not  conducive  to  further  modification,  that  is  to  learning, 
but  lack  of  such  perfection  makes  learning  not  only  pos- 
sible but  absolutely  necessary. 

Immaturity  an  educational  resource.  This  makes  imma- 
tiffity  a  positive  factor  rather  than  a  negative  one.  A  set 
of  forces  is  there,  which  are  designed  to  perfect  the  ad- 
justments of  the  child  to  the  world  he  is  to  live  in.  These 
adjustments  may  be  left  to  chance,  or  given  careful  direc- 
tion. Giving  direction  to  them  is  precisely  what  is  meant 
by  conscious  education.  To  the  teacher,  then,  this  imma- 
turity, or  infancy  means  plasticity,  adaptability,  possi- 
bility for  further  growth. 

Negatively  it  means  that  the  child  is  not  an  incomplete 
adult,  that  childhood  is  not  a  time  to  hasten  through,  as 
if  it  were  a  period  of  waiting  instead  of  a  period  of  growing 
and  living.  It  means  that  we  are  not  dealing  with  organs 
or  functions  which  are  already  fixed,  with  adjustments  al- 
ready made;  that  we  are  not  to  spend  our  time  in  break- 
ing the  child's  will;  and,  most  of  all,  that  we  are  not  to  let 
a  moment  of  time  pass  in  which  opportunity  to  direct  the 
growth  of  the  child  may  be  lost. 


HUMAN  FACTORS  CONCERNED  29 

The  native  equipment  of  children.  That  the  period  of 
infancy  is  a  time  in  which  the  child  is  perfecting  his  adjust- 
ments to  the  world,  and  so  a  most  important  educational 
resource,  does  not  mean  that  the  child  has  no  ready-made 
equipment  for  life  when  he  is  born,  or  by  the  time  he  enters 
school.  He  has  an  abundance  of  such  equipment,  and  with 
the  passing  of  years  that  abundance  increases.  These  mate- 
rials exhibit  themselves  as  tendencies  to  respond  to  certain 
situations  in  certain  typical  ways,  and  are  referred  to  as 
reflexes,  or  instincts,  or  predispositions,  and  constitute  the 
original  mental  make-up  of  man. 

When  the  situation  is  simple,  and  the  response  very 
prompt  and  direct,  and  the  bond  between  them  hard  to 
modify,  as  the  opening  or  closing  of  the  pupil  of  the  eye 
with  decrease  or  increase  of  light,  it  is  called  a  reflex.  Where 
the  situation  is  not  so  simple,  the  response  more  variable, 
and  the  coimection  more  easily  modified,  it  is  referred  to 
as  an  instinct,  as  for  instance  the  tendency  to  pay  atten- 
tion to  bright  colors,  sharp  contrasts,  and  moving  things,  or 
to  imitate  the  acts,  or  seek  the  companionship  of  others. 
When  the  situation  and  response  are  both  extremely  vari- 
able, and  the  connection  between  them  very  modifiable, 
it  is  referred  to  as  "  capacity  "  or  "  predisposition.''  Thus 
when  a  child  responds  readily  and  accurately  to  all  kinds  of 
musical  or  mathematical  situations,  we  think  of  that  child 
as  having  unusual  capacity  for  music  or  mathematics. 

S,  The  school  and  the  native  equipment  of  children 

The  task  of  the  school.  This  original  equipment  is  quite 
varied,  and  as  yet  has  not  been  fully  described.  Enough 
is  known  about  it,  however,  to  offer  many  suggestions  to 
the  teacher.  First  of  all,  the  school  is  largely  concerned 
with  just  this  task  of  modifying  these  original  tendencies 
to  act,  and  in  selecting  the  right  modes  of  behavior  and 


so  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

reducing  them  to  habits.  In  the  evolution  of  the  human 
race  this  original  equipment  is  of  ancient  origin,  and  must 
have  served  to  adapt  man  to  a  far  different  life  from  that 
which  he  must  now  live.  Consequently  the  child  wiU  dis- 
play some  instinctive  acts  which  are  not  only  not  useful, 
but  destructive  in  our  modem  society.  These  must  be 
eliminated  by  preventing  them  from  having  a  chance  to 
get  expression.  Others  will  be  useful  in  their  original  primi- 
tive form,  and  will  need  to  be  stimulated  and  nourished. 
Since  some  of  them  are  transitory,  it  follows  that  if  they 
are  not  promptly  reduced  to  habits,  the  possibility  of  build-^ 
ing  upon  them  may  be  lost.  Since  they  do  not  aU  appeal 
at  the  same  time,  education  must  not  only  strike  while  the 
iron  is  hot,  but  it  must  also  be  constantly  on  the  alert  for 
the  appearance  of  new  instincts.  A  brief  discussion  of  some 
of  the  more  important  of  these  may  be  of  service  here. 

The  play  instinct.  The  tendency  to  play  is  probably  one 
of  the  most  striking,  and  for  education  one  of  the  most 
useful  of  these  bits  of  native  equipment.  Play  was  frowned 
upon  by  our  Puritan  ancestors  as  being  not  only  useless 
and  wasteful,  but  positively  wicked.  To-day,  imder  the 
direction  of  education,  it  is  regarded  as  a  most  useful  start- 
ing-point for  many  school  processes.  Through  play  the 
child  not  only  becomes  acquainted  with  many  objects  and 
persons,  but  through  the  adaptations  necessary  in  his  games 
he  becomes  conscious  of  his  own  powers. 

A  very  large  part  of  what  the  child  has  learned  before 
entering  the  school  he  has  learned  through  play.  Thus 
have  children  always  familiarized  themselves  with  the 
fundamentals  of  the  arts  of  peace  and  war.  In  his  games 
he  has  sowed,  harvested,  himted,  invented,  explored,  ar- 
gued, and  fought.  Nor  have  these  playful  achievements 
always  resulted  without  serious  effort.  And  the  spirit  of 
that  effort  is  one  of  the  important  subjects  of  study  for 


HUMAN  FACTORS  CONCERNED  31 

the  teacher  who  would  have  the  work  of  her  room  pervaded 
by  a  similar  spirit  of  freedom  and  of  definite  purpose. 

The  constructive  instinct.  The  tendency  of  children  to 
construct  and  to  destroy  is  early  noticeable.  No  object  of 
interest  escapes  thorough  handling.  It  is  seen,  touched, 
Ufted,  squeezed,  tinned,  thrown  up  or  down,  accordingly 
as  it  is  of  quality,  size,  and  weight  to  make  such  manip- 
ulation possible.  The  block  house  is  erected  and  destroyed; 
the  pictm-e  is  examined,  then  torn  to  pieces  or  thrown  aside. 
All  this  to  the  end  that  the  child  may  more  fully  sense  his 
world  of  materials,  and  find  out  the  real  meaning  of  his 
own  acts  or  powers  as  their  meanings  are  reflected  in  what 
happens  to  his  materials  as  he  toys  or  toils  with  them. 

The  teacher  has  only  to  understand  the  principles  under- 
lying such  behavior  to  see  that  their  conscious  application 
will  make  number  work,  drawing,  geography,  and  many 
other  features  of  school  work  thoroughly  concrete  and 
objective.  The  child's  idea  of  a  mountain,  a  valley,  an 
animal,  or  a  temple,  expressed  in  clay,  is  not  only  the  best 
test  of  what  he  knows  about  these  things,  but  it  is  the  best 
starting-point  for  him  in  his  effort  to  learn  more  about 
them. 

The  instinct  to  imitate.  Unconsciously  the  child  copies 
from  the  models  about  him.  A  properly  arranged  and 
decorated  schoolroom,  good  organization  and  management, 
a  teacher  with  correct  speech,  manners,  and  dress,  and  with 
kindly  ways,  all  these  are  desirable  models,  and  they  are 
in  large  degree  under  the  teacher's  control. 

The  instinct  of  curiosity.  Curiosity  is  the  instinct  that 
prompts  that  endless  questioning  of  children  which  the 
tired  parent  or  teacher  too  often  dismisses  lightly.  Examine 
a  child's  questions.  They  are  about  everything,  from  ants 
to  stars,  from  digestion  to  volcanoes,  and  from  steam  to 
glaciers.  They  are  the  httle  feelers  through  which  the  child 


32  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

is  struggling  to  gain  a  kinship  to  his  world.  This  inquiring 
disposition  can  practically  be  stayed  by  forbidding  the  child 
ever  to  ask  a  question  in  class,  or,  by  directing  them,  they 
can  be  made  the  basis  for  developing  the  true  scientific 
spirit  and  method  of  work. 

Other  instincts.  There  is  also  the  collecting  and  hoard- 
ing instinct,  which  may  turn  to  postage  stamps,  through 
which  a  world  of  geography  may  be  learned,  or  to  shells, 
or  nests,  or  cocoons,  through  which  the  child  may  enter 
into  most  intimate  converse  with  nature,  and,  if  the  teacher 
is  wise,  it  may  even  be  extended  to  the  collecting  of  ideas 
or  facts  about  a  given  subject  in  history,  civics,  composi- 
tion, or  art;  the  instinct  of  emulation,  where  one  child  is 
stimulated  to  his  very  best  effort  by  the  fact  that  he  is 
being  outdone  by  another  child;  and  the  gregarious  instinct, 
which  is  the  basis  upon  which  the  ideas  and  ideals  of  social 
order  may  be  constructed. 

All  these  are  the  crude,  raw  materials,  which,  together 
with  their  modifiability,  are,  if  properly  handled,  the  great- 
est asset  which  education  has.  To  study  the  ways  in  which 
these  native  materials  express  themselves,  and  the  ways  in 
which  they  grow  into  permanent  modes  of  behavior,  is  to 
study  the  very  essence  of  both  himian  nature  and  educa- 
tion. 

If..  Haw  the  child  hams 

The  principles  underlying  conscious  behavior,  the  get- 
ting of  ideas,  the  formation  of  habits,  the  control  of  atten- 
tion, etc.,  are  factors  with  which  intelligent  teaching  must 
reckon.  How  does  the  child  explore,  or  shall  we  say  con- 
struct, the  world  he  is  in?  We  have  discussed  his  native 
equipment  above,  and  have  seen  how  nature  has  provided 
motivating  forces  which  push  the  child  out  to  explore  the 
world  about  him,  and  lead  him  to  try  to  control  it.  Leav- 


HUMAN  FACTORS  CONCERNED  33 

ing  aside  that  kind  of  conduct  which  is  purely  reflex  or 
instinctive,  and  so  largely  unavoidable  for  the  child,  what 
are  some  of  the  principles  which  operate  to  direct  his  con- 
scious behavior? 

The  function  of  the  senses.  The  contact  which  the  child 
has  with  the  objective  world  is  through  his  senses  of  sight, 
hearing,  smell,  touch,  etc.,  and  some  knowledge  of  these 
would  seem  to  be  our  first  step  in  a  study  of  the  principles 
underlying  conscious  behavior.  All  the  ideas  we  have  are 
the  direct  or  indirect  result  of  om*  sense  experience.  Excel- 
lent evidence  of  this  is  seen  in  the  nature  of  sense  experi- 
ence itself.  If  we  hear  a  sound,  or  view  a  strange  object, 
we  immediately  change  the  position  of  the  body,  to  the 
end  that  we  may  more  fully  drink  in  the  sight  or  sound  if 
it  is  pleasant,  or  shut  it  out  if  it  is  unpleasant.  In  other 
words,  no  sensation  is  complete  without  some  bodily  move- 
ment as  a  response.  This  seems  to  mean  that  the  reason 
for  sensation  is  that  we  may  adjust  ourselves  properly  to 
the  new  object  or  situation,  that  is,  that  we  may  get  a 
meaning  for  it. 

It  follows,  then,  that  a  child's  ideas,  information,  knowl- 
edge of  things  social,  aesthetic,  intellectual,  moral,  eco- 
nomic, or  physical  increase  in  proportion  to  the  nmnber  of 
sensations  he  feels  and  the  number  of  responses  he  makes 
to  these  stimuli.  For  education  this  principle  suggests  the 
importance  of  concrete  as  opposed  to  verbal  training,  of 
doing  as  opposed  to  mere  remembering,  of  organization  in 
terms  of  social  relationships  which  are  natural,  of  govern- 
ment in  terms  of  leadership.  It  means  that  sense  training 
must  be  a  fact,  as  broadly  applied  in  school  management 
and  instruction  as  it  is  in  the  child's  own  free  life  at  home 
or  on  the  street. 

Principles  of  habit  formation.  Getting  ideas,  or  infor- 
noation,  or  meaning,  is  but  one  side  of  education.   There 


S4  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

is  yet  the  other  side,  which  has  to  do  with  the  development 
of  skill,  or  the  formation  of  habits.  Habit  is  the  line  of  least 
resistance  in  conduct,  and  our  concern  in  education  is  to 
see  that  right  habits  are  formed,  and  that  wrong  habits 
are  prevented.  How,  then,  are  they  formed?  If  stated  in 
simple  terms  there  are  three  principles  we  need  to  follow. 

First,  get  clearly  in  mind  the  full  nature  of  the  perform- 
ance that  is  to  be  reduced  to  habit. 

Second,  go  through  the  performance  repeatedly,  with 
closest  attention  to  every  detail. 

Third,  never  permit  an  exception  to  the  mode  of  action 
decided  upon. 

As  James  says,  we  can  thus  make  our  nervous  systems 
our  enemy  or  our  ally.  Habits  are  bound  to  be  formed  on 
the  playground,  in  respect  to  methods  of  study,  neatness, 
politeness,  language,  and  recitation,  and  it  is  for  the  teacher 
first  of  all  to  get  a  clear  notion  of  the  habits  she  wishes  to 
establish,  and  then  stick  persistently  to  the  application  of 
these  three  principles  till  the  performance  has  become  as 
mechanical  as  if  it  were  purely  instinctive.  An  important 
reward  for  this  persistence  is  the  freeing  of  consciousness 
from  many  simple  duties,  and  the  guarantee  that  these 
duties  will  be  performed  promptly,  accurately,  and  in  the 
right  place. 

5.  The  problem  of  health 

New  interest  in  health  questions.  Physical  development 
is  another  angle  from  which  we  must  view  the  child  as  a 
factor  in  our  task  of  management.  City  health  depart- 
ments are  growing,  health  statistics  are  accumulating  in 
gynmasiums  and  laboratories,  diseases  and  preventive 
measures  are  being  studied  as  never  before,  children  are 
being  taught  physiology  and  hygiene,  laws  are  being  en- 
acted for  the  control  of  contagious  diseases,  and  the  prob- 


HUMAN  FACTORS  CONCERNED  35 

Icxns  of  health  and  theur  influence  in  education  are  being 
studied  in  every  school  of  education.  Yet  step  into  most 
any  school  and  we  find  evidences  of  malnutrition,  adenoids, 
diseased  tonsils,  defective  hearing  and  vision,  lack  of  nerv- 
ous control,  and  we  read  that  scarcely  one  third  of  our 
American  school  children  are  frefe  from  physical  defects 
which  are  prejudicial  to  health. 

Health  problems  and  school  work.  Surely  this  makes  a 
difference  in  the  problems  of  school  management,  and  in 
sdf-defense,  if  for  no  other  reason,  the  teacher  should  for- 
tify herself  against  this  extra  burden.  The  child  who  has 
to  open  his  mouth  and  thrust  his  chin  forward  in  order  to 
breathe  has  too  often  been  scolded  for  lack  of  attention, 
when  in  fact  he  was  using  practically  all  his  energy  in  get- 
ting his  breath. 

When  we  recall  that  on  the  average  two  of  every  three 
children  in  the  room  are  thus  handicapped,  we  are  inclined 
to  say  that  a  large  part  of  the  teacher's  responsibiUty  in 
management  turns  upon  matters  of  health. 

Prominent  symptoms  of  most  of  these  ailments  can  be 
detected  by  any  intelligent  layman  who  will  take  the 
trouble  to  look  for  them,  and  with  no  great  amoimt  of  read- 
ing teachers  may  be  able  not  only  to  solve  more  intelli- 
gently many  knotty  management  problems,  but  they  may, 
by  a  little  inteUigent  and  sympathetic  direction  of  children, 
and  parents,  be  able  to  save  hundreds  from  suffering  and 
disease.  Such  a  service  should  not  only  be  looked  upon  by 
teachers  as  a  privilege,  but  as  one  of  their  sternest  obUga- 
tions.^  It  is  children  we  are  to  manage,  and  not  merely 
textbooks,  report  cards,  time  schedules,  fire  drills,  and  such 
other  material  details  of  school  work. 

*  A  book  of  value  to  teachers  in  this  connection  is  The  Hygiene  of  the 
School  Child,  by  Dr.  L.  M.  Terman. 


86  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

6.  Individual  differences 

No  two  children  alike.  There  is  yet  another  angle  from 
which  the  child  must  be  miderstood  and  that  is  from  the 
standpoint  of  his  unlikeness  to  other  children,  or  from  the 
standpoint  of  his  own  individuality.  We  are  accustomed 
to  speak  in  terms  of  averages  —  the  average  score  attained 
in  the  test,  the  average  number  promoted,  the  boy  of  aver- 
age intelhgence,  etc.  —  as  if  the  aim  of  the  school  were  to 
turn  the  children  out,  each  as  nearly  as  possible  like  the 
others.  We  are  often  satisfied  if  the  child  is  up  to  the 
average  in  deportment,  application,  and  studies,  forgetting 
that  no  two  children  are  alike. 

In  color  of  eyes,  height,  complexion,  length  of  arms,  etc., 
there  are  wide  differences  among  children  of  the  same  age. 
In  exactly  the  same  way  children  differ  in  respect  to  mental 
ability.  The  range  from  idiocy  to  genius  is  the  possible 
range  of  intelligence.  If  a  few  thousand  children  were 
selected  at  random  and  competently  measured  for  intelli- 
gence, it  is  probable  that  a  very  few  would  be  marked  as 
idiots,  and  imbeciles;  that  a  few  would  rank  as  geniuses, 
and  that  every  possible  grade  of  intelligence  between  these 
extremes  would  be  represented.  Human  nature  is  just  this 
variable,  and  while  so  wide  a  variety  of  iatelligence  would 
likely  not  be  found  in  a  single  classroom,  yet  if  we  refer  to 
a  single  trait  of  intelligence,  such  as  the  abihty  to  spell,  or 
the  ability  to  sing,  we  should  find  a  wide  difference  between 
the  poorest  and  the  best,  and  that  the  members  of  the  class 
were  very  much  unlike  in  the  exact  nature  of  their  responses 
in  these  tests.  ^ 

Significance  of  differences  for  the  school.  In  grading  and 
promoting  children,  in  making  lesson  assignments,  in  ap- 

*  The  significance  of  all  these  differences  is  brought  out  more  fully  in 
later  chapters. 


HUMAN  FACTORS  CONCERNED  87 

pomting  pupils  for  special  duties,  in  seating  the  pupils,  in 
developing  incentives  for  work,  in  cases  of  punishment, 
in  supervision  of  games,  in  dramatizing  stories,  in  making 
class  excursions,  this  fact  of  individual  differences  must 
enter  as  a  determining  factor. 

This  is  not  a  matter  to  be  deplored;  it  is  rather  to  be 
prized  as  the  guarantee  of  society's  capacity  to  progress. 
Just  as  it  has  been  the  great  biological  fact  in  the  evolution 
of  the  human  race,  it  has  also  been  the  great  social  fact. 
If  we  were  all  alike,  no  one  would  discover  a  new  way  to 
do  things.  It  is  our  imlikeness,  our  variability,  that  needs 
to  be  treasured.  So  instead  of  trying  to  bury  it  in  the 
schoolroom,  by  preparing  every  task  for  that  mysterious 
average  pupil,  let  us  stimulate  these  differences  so  that, 
by  supplementing  each  other  in  school,  they  will  enrich 
school  life,  just  as  variation,  biological  and  social,  haveien- 
riched  human  society. 

7.  Chapter  summary 

In  this  brief  sketch  of  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  problem 
which  the  child  presents,  it  has  been  the  purpose  to  emphasize  the 
fact  that  it  is  human  nature  that  management  has  to  deal  with, 
and  that  regarding  this  human  nature  there  is  a  well  defined  body 
of  knowledge,  —  biological,  psychological,  and  physiological, — 
upon  which  rests  any  rational  interpretation  of  the  true  import  of 
the  child  as  the  first  factor  and  the  sole  object  in  all  school  man- 
agement. 

REFERENCES  FOR  ADDITIONAL  READING 

Fiske,  John,  The  Meaning  of  Infancy. 
Strayer  and  Norsworthy,  How  to  Teach,  chap.  n. 
Tennan,  L.  M.,  The  Hygiene  of  the  School  Child. 
Thorndike,  E,  S.,  Education,  diap.  v. 
Thomdike,  E.  S.,  Individuality. 


38  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 


QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Enumerate  the  large  factors  to  be  dealt  with  in  the  management  •£ 
a  school. 

2.  What  is  meant  by  native  equipment  of  the  child? 

3.  Describe  a  concrete  case  of  instinctive  behavior  which  you  have 
observed.  Connect  it  with  the  appropriate  instinct,  and  explain  what 
seemed  to  you  to  have  been  its  real  value  or  significance  to  the  child. 

4.  Describe  similar  activities  belongmg  to  other  instincts  and  explaiu 
any  suggestions  they  might  offer  to  the  one  directing  the  child's 
education. 

5.  Compare  the  period  of  infancy  in  length  with  that  for  several  animals 
with  which  you  are  familiar. 

6.  How  does  the  human  infant  compare  with  the  young  of  other  animals 
in  respect  to  helplessness  at  various  ages.'* 

7.  In  what  sense  is  the  period  of  infancy  a  positive  factor  in  a  child's 
education? 

8.  In  managing  children,  what  value  is  there  in  knowing  how  they  make 
use  of  their  senses  in  getting  knowledge? 

9.  How  would  you  go  about  the  formation  of  a  new  habit? 

10.  In  what  sense  is  a  teacher  responsible  for  knowing  the  symptoms  of 
the  common  diseases  of  children? 

11.  What  is  meant  by  individual  differences  among  children? 

12.  What  significance  will  these  differences  have  in  the  management  of 
children? 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  ENVIRONMENT  AND  TEACHER  AS  FACTORS 

Outline  of  Chapter 

1.  Environment  —  Our  point  of  view  —  The  materials  to  work  with  —  Directing  the 
process  —  The  real  test  of  efficient  management  —  School  management  a  rational  process. 

i.  The  teacher  —  New  professional  demands  —  The  teacher's  relationships  —  Pro- 
fessional relationships  —  Relationships  with  parents  and  community. 

6.  Summary  of  Part  I  —  References  —  Questions. 

In  the  preceding  chapter  we  enumerated  three  factors  as 
having  to  do  "with  school  management.  The  first  of  these 
was  the  child;  the  second  was  the  environment;  and  the 
third  was  the  teacher.  The  facts  regarding  the  first  of 
these  were  set  forth  above,  and  we  shall  attempt  here  to 
sketch  out  the  field  covered  by  the  other  two,  hoping  to 
show  something  of  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  knowledge 
which  the  teacher  must  possess  herself  of  if  she  is  to  deal 
intelligently  with  these  two  factors  in  her  problem. 

1.  Environment 

Our  point  of  view.  It  is  better  to  think  of  the  environ- 
mental factors  from  the  standpoint  of  the  part  they  play 
in  directing  the  child's  education,  rather  than  from  that 
of  their  own  formal  or  physical  make  up.  In  thinking  of 
desks  from  the  standpoint  of  their  perfection  as  pieces  of 
furniture,  it  is  easy  to  overlook  the  importance  of  the  height 
of  the  seat  from  the  floor,  or  of  the  adjustability  of  the  seat, 
and  to  think  rather  of  the  general  form,  stability,  and 
appearance.  Similarly,  in  marching  children  into  and  out 
of  the  building  it  is  often  easier  to  think  of  the  procedure 
in  terms  of  its  military  precision  than  to  think  of  it  in  terms 
of  its  contribution  to  the  social  and  physical  training  of  the 


40  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

children.  The  most  formal  scheme  of  promotion  is  the  best 
looking  on  paper,  and  easiest  to  administer,  but  it  is  also 
of  least  educational  service.  Our  starting-pK)int  then  should 
be  the  process,  rather  than  the  machinery  by  which  that 
process  is  determined. 

The  materials  to  work  with.  In  addition  to  the  factor  of 
child  nature,  above  discussed,  the  teacher  must  deal  with 
the  physical  equipment  and  the  plans  of  operation  by 
means  of  which  this  child  nature  is  to  be  changed. 

Over  many  of  these  latter  materials  the  teacher  will  have 
but  little  control.  The  building,  the  furniture  and  equip- 
ment, the  playgrounds,  and  most  often  the  curriculum,  are 
all  there,  and  in  too  many  cases  have  been  there  for  years. 

There  are  other  aspects  of  the  situation,  however,  in  re- 
spect to  which  the  teacher  is  not  so  helpless.  She  may  not 
be  able  to  determine  the  color  and  texture  of  window  shades, 
but  she  can  determine  whether  the  shades  render  service. 
She  may  have  to  use  unsuitable  textbooks,  but  these  she 
can  edit  and  supplement  in  numerous  ways,  while  the  dust- 
covered  equipment  of  whatever  sort  can  be  made  to  serve 
some  purpose,  so  that  what  was  evidence  of  neglect  and 
waste  may  be  made  to  look  clean  and  orderly. 

AU  these  features  are  means  and  instruments  in  the  hands 
of  the  teacher,  and  will  be  effective  only  as  the  teacher 
develops  skill  in  bringing  their  influence  to  bear  upon  the 
growing  child.  A  dirty  and  disorderly  room  and  playground 
are  sure  to  be  reflected  in  the  dress,  manners,  and  speech 
of  the  children,  and  in  a  lack  of  loyalty  to  an  institution 
in  these  respects  so  much  below  the  standard  of  their  own 
homes.  On  the  other  hand,  by  systematically  connecting 
the  work  of  instruction  with  these  things,  it  is  not  only 
possible  to  enhance  their  appearance  and  increase  their 
usefulness,  but  to  develop  within  the  children  a  sense  of 
ownership  and  pride  in  the  school  which  is  sure  to  spread 


ENVIRONMENT  AND  TEACHER  41 

to  the  community  at  large,  and  ultimately  to  react  favor- 
ably on  the  school. 

Directing  the  process.  It  is  in  terms  of  child  nature,  and 
with  the  use  of  such  physical  surroundings  and  equipment 
as  may  have  been  provided,  that  the  teacher  is  to  work  out 
her  plan  of  action.  First  of  all,  let  us  insist  that  all  action 
be  planned  action;  second,  that  plans,  as  far  as  possible, 
shall  be  worked  out  before  the  school  year  opens,  and  go 
into  effect  the  very  first  day;  and  third,  that  all  plans  shall 
be  frequently  checked  up  in  terms  of  their  educational  serv- 
ice, and  not  in  terms  of  the  ease  with  which  they  work. 

In  making  plans  the  first  step  is  to  get  clearly  in  mind 
what  is  to  be  accomplished,  and  the  length  of  time  in  which 
it  is  to  be  done.  This  means  that  the  course  of  study  and 
the  textbooks  must  be  checked  up  against  each  other,  and 
rough  monthly  plans  of  the  work  outlined.  These  rough 
plans  will  furnish  the  basis  for  making  the  daily  or  weekly 
lesson  plans  for  teaching,  and  will  tend  to  keep  the  work 
of  the  year  well  balanced.  Then  there  is  the  daily  time 
schedule;  the  basis  of  grading  and  promotion;  the  plan  of 
seating  the  children;  the  movement  of  the  class  into  and 
out  of  the  building;  the  handling  of  wraps  and  supplies;  — 
aU  these  represent  problems  of  organization,  a  full  grasp 
of  which  every  teacher  must  have.  The  modes  of  proce- 
dure in  these  matters  will  represent  the  main  structure  of 
the  school. 

The  real  test  of  eflBicient  management.  But  the  real  proc- 
ess of  management  is  more  complex  than  this  would  seem 
to  make  it.  The  main  plans  of  operation,  though  more  or 
less  fixed  in  character,  must  yet  be  suflSciently  flexible  to 
meet  the  needs  of  child  nature,  which  we  have  shown  above 
to  be  extremely  variable.  Meeting  these  needs  success- 
fully, making  these  finer  adjustments  to  individual  cases, 
is  the  real  test  of  eflScient  management.    The  control  of 


42  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

attention,  the  development  of  right  motives  for  work, 
handling  the  child  with  defective  vision,  or  hearing,  —  the 
nervous,  the  mischievous,  the  dull,  the  bright,  the  morally 
degenerate,  the  half -fed,  the  ill,  as  well  as  the  normal  child, 
—  cannot  be  done  by  rule  of  thumb.  For  each  of  these 
cases  specific  plans  must  be  made  which  will  sometimes  test 
the  patience  and  inventiveness  of  the  teacher,  as  well  as  the 
elasticity  of  the  regular  routine  procedure. 

School  management  a  rational  process.  Thus  the  process 
of  management  is  to  be  from  start  to  finish  a  rational  proc- 
ess, involving  the  making  of  plans,  and  their  execution. 
These  plans  become  more  complex,  more  flexible,  more  in 
terms  of  individual  natures,  as  we  pass  from  their  coarser 
and  external  to  their  finer  and  internal  features,  from  the 
gross  structure  of  the  school  to  the  management  of  indi- 
vidual children.  To  make  the  operation  of  these  plans 
rational,  the  meaning  and  aim  of  education,  and  the  natiu-e 
of  child  life  and  its  modes  of  learning  must  alike  be  kept  in 
mind  as  the  plans  are  evolved.  In  their  coarser  features 
they  may  be  designed  outside  the  school,  but  in  their  final 
application  they  cannot  be  made  away  from  the  cases  they 
are  to  fit.  A  study  of  these  plans,  and  of  the  physical  fea- 
tures of  the  school  environment  which  enter  into  their  work- 
ing, will  be  the  purpose  of  a  later  section  of  the  book. 

2.  The  teacher 

New  professional  demands.  Finally,  we  are  to  deal  with 
those  facts  which  pertain  to  the  teacher  herself.  These  we 
are  putting  last  in  order  because  we  wish  to  emphasize  the 
scientific  as  opposed  to  the  personal  approach  to  the  study 
of  school  management,  and  to  show  the  character  of  the 
task  before  outlining  the  qualifications  of  the  one  who  is 
to  direct  it. 

The  school  of  to-day  is  by  no  means  the  simple  insti- 


ENVIRONMENT  AND  TEACHER  43 

tution  it  used  to  be  when  teacher  and  school  were  consid- 
ered as  synonymous.  Then  a  Httle  book  learning  coupled 
with  a  pleasing  appearance  constituted  the  necessary  equip- 
ment for  teaching,  but  to-day  the  task  has  broadened  and 
become  technical  and  the  demand  is  for  men  and  women 
who  have  been  scientifically  trained  along  these  lines. 

The  teacher's  relationships.  The  teacher  is  but  a  part 
of  a  complex  institution,  and  to  know  well  how  to  perform 
her  function  is  not  only  to  know  her  own  immediate  task, 
but  to  know  it  in  all  its  implications,  physical,  social,  and 
professional.  To  be  able  to  work  harmoniously  with  her 
school  trustees,  her  superintendent,  her  supervisor,  her 
principal,  her  fellow  teachers,  and  to  be  able  to  make  the 
school  a  factor  in  community  life,  demands  a  broad  grasp 
of  the  larger  professional  and  social  problems  of  public 
education. 

Through  the  board  of  education^  the  people  delegate 
authority  to  those  who  manage  the  schools.  Its  members 
stand  as  the  representatives  of  the  people  and  are  responsible, 
not  for  running  the  schools  but  for  employing  competent 
officers  and  teachers  for  that  purpose.  While  the  teacher 
is  ultimately  responsible  to  this  board  she  must  remember 
that  it  is  concerned  only  with  the  larger  questions  of  school 
policy  and  not  with  matters  of  teaching  and  management. 

Professional  relationships.  The  teacher's  most  impor- 
tant relationships  are  with  her  immediate  co-workers  in 
the  school,  —  the  superintendent,  the  supervisor,  the  prin- 
cipal, and  her  fellow  teachers.  Her  own  duties  as  a  member 
of  this  group  will  be  a  constant  study,  since  upon  her  full 
cooperation  here  depends  her  own  success  and  that  of  the 
entire  enterprise.  These  relationships  will  be  fully  exam- 
ined in  later  chapters,  but  here,  it  must  be  pointed  out,  lie 
some  of  the  most  difficult  problems  the  teacher  will  have 
to  face.   To  direct  one's  own  epergy  in  full  sympathy  an(J 


44  CLASSR(X)M  ORGANIZATION 

accord  with  that  of  the  entire  faculty  calls  for  a  clear  under- 
standing of  the  respective  functions  of  each  member  in 
addition  to  a  high  degree  of  self-control  and  self-effacement. 

Relationships  with  parents  and  communily.  Finally,  the 
teacher  is  responsible  to  her  patrons.  She  is  a  servant  of 
the  community.  Her  relationship  to  parents  will  be  more 
or  less  intimate  accordingly  as  she  is  in  a  rural,  village,  or 
city  school.  In  any  case  she  must  formulate  or  assist  in 
fonnulating  a  school  policy,  and  that  in  terms  of  com- 
munity needs.  To  do  this  she  must  know  the  people  and 
their  social  and  work-a-day  interests,  and  become  in  fact 
a  real  member  of  the  commimity. 

It  would  seem  to  require  an  unusual  person,  of  unusual 
training,  to  establish  proper  relationships,  and  to  bear  all 
the  responsibilities  thus  far  suggested,  and  so  it  would. 
An  unusual  i>erson  in  character  and  personality,  an  un- 
usual person  in  professional  equipment  and  ability  to  grow, 
an  unusual  person  as  to  insight  and  leadership,  an  unusual 
person  in  physique.  In  part  IV  we  shall  consider  the  teacher 
from  these  points  of  view. 

3.  Summary  of  Part  I 

In  the  above  chapters  we  have  attempted  to  outline  the  problem 
of  school  management,  and  to  show  in  a  brief  way  the  fundamental 
bases  upon  which  any  scientific  handling  of  children  must  rest. 
We  have  tried  to  see  just  where  the  problem  of  management  Ues, 
and  to  develop  a  point  of  view  from  which  the  teacher  may  ap- 
proach the  actual  practical  task  in  the  schoolroom. 

In  doing  this  we  have  seen  that  the  teacher,  who  is  society's 
agent,  will  have  to  deal  with  two  large  sets  of  facts.  First,  facts 
about  original  child  nature;  second,  facts  about  all  the  forces  which 
combine  in  the  school  to  give  direction  to  the  changes  which  are 
to  be  wrought  in  that  nature,  as  the  child  grows  to  manhood  and 
to  citi:2enship.  Over  the  first  of  these  sets  of  facts  the  teacher  has 
no  control,  but  over  the  second  she  has  a  very  wide  control.  This 
last  set  of  facts  we  have  arbitrarily,  and  for  purposes  of  study. 


ENVIRONMENT  AND  TEACHER  45 

dMded  into  two  groups.  The  physical  and  formal  features  of  the 
institution  we  have  grouped  under  the  head  of  "the  management 
process,"  in  order  to  accentuate  the  function  of  such  features, 
rather  than  their  form;  while  those  which  have  to  do  with  the 
direction  and  control  of  the  process  were  to  be  dealt  with  under 
the  title  of  "teacher."  We  are  to  think  of  school  management, 
then,  by  thinking  of  children;  of  the  process  of  their  development; 
and  of  the  person  who  directs  that  process. 

We  have  seen  how  good  management  involves  an  understanding 
of  child  nature,  and  of  the  future  claims  which  society  places  upon 
that  nature;  how  the  school  can  be  managed  to  these  ends;  and 
when  the  aim  of  the  school  with  respect  to  each  is  clear.  This  in- 
volved a  study  of  the  biological,  psychological,  and  physical  factors 
in  child  nature  on  the  one  hand,  and  of  sociological  and  institu- 
tional facts  on  the  other. 

This  study  of  individuality  brought  to  light  the  fundamental 
relation  between  theory  and  practice  in  school  work,  from  which 
we  saw  not  only  the  relation  of  aim  to  management,  and  of  correct 
method  to  the  accomplishment  of  a  given  aim,  but  also  the  respon- 
sibility of  the  teacher  with  respect  to  the  why  of  all  her  work. 

Finally,  the  nature  and  scope  of  the  tfeacher's  task  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  physical  factors  she  is  to  deal  with,  the  plant  and 
equipment,  the  formal  organization  of  children  and  materials,  and 
her  relationship  to  her  community  and  to  her  feUow  school  oflBcers, 
was  examined.  From  this  we  saw  that  the  task  of  managing  a 
school  is  far  more  complex  to-day  than  it  was  when  social  and 
industrial  life  were  simpler,  and  that  the  teacher's  task  is  one  which 
involves  technical  knowledge  and  professional  skill,  as  well  as  a 
good  personality. 

In  the  chapters  which  follow  we  shall  examine  in  greater  detail 
the  problems  affecting  the  child  (part  ii),  the  process  of  manage- 
ment (part  III),  and  the  teacher  (part  iv),  which  have  been  out- 
lined in  the  above  discussion. 

REFERENCES  FOR  ADDITIONAL  READING 

Chancellor,  W.  E.   Our  Schools;  Their  Administration  and  Supervision,, 

chaps,  ni,  rv,  and  vi. 
Cubberiey,  E.  P.  Changing  Conceptions  of  Education^  pt.  ni. 
Eliot,  Chas.  W.   The  Concrete  and  Practical  in  Modem  EducaHon. 


46  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 


QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  What  advantage  is  there  in  thmking  of  a  blackboard,  a  plan  of  pro- 
motion, or  a  daily  time  schedule  in  terms  of  their  use  in  the  school? 

2.  How  would  you  classify  the  materials  with  which  the  teacher  must 
work  in  managing  a  school? 

3.  What  is  a  correct  basis  for  measuring  the  efficiency  of  a  management 
plan?  What  is  the  advantage  of  making  out  as  complete  plans  as 
possible  before  the  time  they  are  to  go  into  effect? 

4.  Why  do  most  plans  have  to  be  slightly  elastic?  Illustrate. 

5.  For  what  kind  of  problems  is  it  impossible  to  have  fixed  plans? 

6.  Why  is  it  economical  to  develop  set  ways  of  carrying  on  certain 
features  of  schoolroom  procedure?  What  plans  of  this  type  have  you 
used?   What  educational  return  did  you  expect  from  them? 

7.  Is  there  relatively  less  emphasis  placed  upon  the  teacher's  personality 
than  formerly?  Why? 

8.  In  what  sense  is  the  teacher  a  state  officer? 

9.  Explain  the  teacher's  relationship  to  the  various  other  school  officers, 
and  show  why,  in  a  large  school,  success  is  dependent  upon  the  way 
in  which  the  work  of  individual  teachers  is  coordinated. 

10.  What  should  be  the  relation  of  the  teacher  to  the  social  Ufe  of  the 
conmiunity? 


PAJRT  11 
THE  PUPIL  AS  THE  OBJECT 


CHAPTER  V 

MEMBERSHIP  AND  ATTENDANCE 

Outline  of  Chapteb 

1.  The  chad's  contact  with  the  school  —  The  responsive  character  of  childhood  —  The 
teacher  as  leader. 

2.  The  attendance  problem  in  the  large  —  The  State's  interest  in  attendance  —  Aspects 
of  the  problem. 

3.  Causes  and  consequences  of  such  irregularities  —  Causes  classified  —  What  poor 
attendance  means. 

4.  The  first  step  in  meeting  the  issue,  analysis  —  Adequate  records  and  reports  necessary 

—  Cases  demand  individual  treatment. 

5.  The  second  step,  what  to  do  —  Make  school  i  if e  attractive  —  Coercion  the  last  resort 

—  The  attendance  department. 

6.  Summary  —  References  —  Questions. 

The  purpose  of  this  part.  The  child  is  the  fundamental 
point  about  which  all  our  study  of  management  must  fin- 
ally center.  He  is  the  sole  object  for  whom  all  plans  are  to 
be  made,  and  only  in  so  far  as  any  plan  or  device  faciHtates 
his  development  can  it  be  considered  effective. 

We  have  set  forth  above  the  ends  which  are  to  be  sought 
in  the  child's  training,  showed  how  those  ends  must  func- 
tion in  management,  and  indicated  the  materials  which 
must  be  dealt  with  in  attaining  those  ends. 

The  interests  of  the  child  are  therefore  the  beginning  and 
end  of  every  plan,  or  program,  or  basic  principle,  which 
enters  into  our  study  of  this  subject.  How  to  help  the  child 
to  comprehend  the  meaning  of  the  institution  of  which  he 
is  to  become  a  part,  how  to  bring  him  into  congenial  rela- 
tionship with  his  teacher  and  with  the  other  members  of 
the  school,  how  to  secure  his  regular  attendance,  to  man- 
age him  when  disobedient  and  disorderiy,  to  reform  him 
when  unsocial,  to  provide  him  with  appropriate  incentives  for 
right  behavior  and  study,  and  to  know  when  we  have  secured 
the  desired  results,  will  be  our  next  group  of  problems. 


Hb  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

1.  The  child's  contact  with  the  school 

Responsive  character  of  childhood.  The  child  is  natu- 
rally responsive  to  kindly  treatment.  His  membership  in 
the  home  has  given  him  six  years  of  most  intimate  and  per- 
sonal exp>erience  with  his  parents  who  have  thus  far  di- 
rected him.  Now  the  teacher  is  to  stand  in  loco  parentis y 
and  it  will  be  her  task  to  assume  this  responsibihty  in  real- 
ity. This  means  that  she  shall  seek  to  estabhsh  between  the 
child  and  herself,  and  between  the  different  children,  those 
same  intimate  personal  relationships  they  have  thus  far 
known  only  in  the  home.  If  this  is  really  undertaken  the 
response  of  the  child  will  be  immediate,  and  the  develop- 
ment of  a  real  sense  of  membership  will  go  rapidly  forward. 

Such  relationships  once  estabhshed  the  school  can  then 
guarantee  to  the  child  the  widest  freedom  for  personal 
development,  and  at  the  same  time  teach  him  the  larger 
meaning  of  his  place  in  a  social  world.  There  will  be  room 
for  his  play,  for  his  imagination,  for  his  reasoning,  for  his 
judgment,  for  his  will,  all  to  find  expression  in  terms  of  the 
claims  put  upon  them  by  his  fellows. 

The  teacher  as  leader.  In  this  program  the  teacher  is 
the  leader.  It  is  her  task  to  see  to  it  that  not  one  but  every 
pupil  shall  live  up  to  these  possibilities.  All  shall  work  and 
play  freely,  all  shall  initiate  ideas  and  axjtions.  For  the 
teacher  the  problem  of  estabUshing  this  membership,  then, 
is  not  to  be  left  to  chance.  It  is  a  problem  of  executive 
training,  and  deserves  a  far  more  careful  study  than  has 
so  far  been  given  to  it,  or  than  can  be  devoted  to  it  in  the 
brief  space  available  for  it  here. 

2,  The  attendance  'problem  in  the  large 

The  State's  interest  in  attendance.  If  such  membership  is 
to  be  estabhshed,  then  one  of  the  first  problems  is  that  of  at- 


MEMBERSHIP  AND  ATTENDANCE  51 

tendance.  Society  is  attempting  to  provide  for  all  its  children 
the  kind  of  introduction  to  school  life  which  we  have  just  de- 
scribed. This  is  the  State's  gift  to  its  children,  and  from  the 
standpoint  of  a  trained  citizenship,  it  is  highly  desirable  that 
every  child  should  improve  this  opportunity  to  the  full  limits 
of  its  possibilities  by  regular  and  punctual  attendance. 

State  legislatures  have  enacted  compulsory-attendance 
laws  in  order  to  protect  children  from  the  ignorance  and 
selfishness  of  such  parents  as  fail  to  appreciate  the  value  of 
education,  yet  in  the  face  of  these  laws  our  school  records 
show  that  there  are  yet  many  difficulties  to  be  overcome 
before  perfect  attendance  can  be  realized. 

Aspects  of  the  problem.  In  the  school  the  problem  pre- 
sents itself  in  three  different  forms.  First,  there  is  the  child 
who  is  rarely  or  never  in  school;  second,  the  child  whose 
attendance  is  irregular;  and  third,  the  child  who  is  fre- 
quently late  to  school.  The  first  of  these  is  supposed  to  be 
cared  for  by  the  compulsory-attendance  and  child-labor 
laws  of  the  State.  Yet  the  attendance  records  in  almost 
any  city  afford  ample  evidence  that  these  laws  are  even 
yet  to  a  large  degree  ineffec^ve.^  The  second  and  third 
types  constitute  the  teacher's  problem  in  management. 
Who  these  absentees  are,  why  they  are  irregular,  the  diffi- 
culties they  create  in  the  school,  and  how  they  can  be  most 
effectively  dealt  with,  are  questions  which  the  teacher  and 
principal  must  attempt  to  answer. 

3.  Causes  and  consequences  of  such  irregularities 

Causes  classified.   There  are  almost  as  many  causes  of 

these  evils  as  there  are  types  of  hmnan  nature.   There  are 

*  Out  of  57,830  cases  of  absence  in  St.  Louis,  in  1913-14,  taking  this 
city  as  an  illustration,  there  were  2383  which  were  due  to  truancy  by  728 
different  children.  In  this  same  year  it  was  found  that  90.6  per  cent  of  the 
truants  were  retarded  in  then*  work.  (Annual  Report  of  the  Superintendent 
of  Schools.) 


52  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

just  causes,  such  as  illness,  severe  storms,  serious  trouble 
in  the  home,  etc.,  which  are  legitimate  reasons  for  absence 
or  tardiness.  But  of  unjust  causes  there  is  no  end.  Read 
the  excuses  which  children  bring  to  school:  "Had  to  help 
mother,"  "  Father  wanted  me  to  run  an  errand,"  "  Did  n't 
feel  well,"  "  Had  to  stay  with  baby,"  "  Wanted  to  stay 
out  a  day  and  rest,"  etc.,  without  ceasing. 

The  cause  may,  however,  lie  within  the  school  itself:  a 
cross,  unsympathetic  teacher,  a  formal  curriculum,  a  stiff 
and  unnatural  school  atmosphere,  or  a  gloomy,  uncom- 
fortable room,  are  often  causes  which  will  not  be  men- 
tioned in  the  child's  written  excuse,  and  yet  are  true,  and 
one  is  tempted  to  say  justifiable  causes  of  such  irregulari- 
ties. 

What  poor  attendance  means.  School,  like  time  and  tide, 
waits  for  no  child.  Whether  he  is  out  for  a  good  or  a  bad 
cause,  his  opportunity  is  slipping  by,  and  when  he  returns 
after  a  day  or  a  week  out  of  class  he  will  find  his  work 
harder,  his  own  interest  materially  weakened,  and  the 
temptation  to  quit  and  go  to  work  more  pressing  than 
ever.  These  are  not  mere  opinions  any  longer,  as  numerous 
studies  of  retardation  go  to  show.  ^  In  a  recent  study  of  the 
annual  reports  from  one  hundred  and  thirty-four  city  school 
systems,  the  writer  found  that  practically  one  fifth  of  the 
superintendents  of  those  cities  had  recommended  some 
revision  in  their  methods  of  handling  the  various  problems 
of  attendance.  2 

There  is  yet  another  consequence  which  must  not  be 
minimized,  and  that  is  that  such  irregularity  causes  the 
child  to  lose  respect  for  the  school  and  for  learning,  while 
developing  in  him  habits  of  slovenliness  where  there  should 

*  See  Ayers,  L.  P.,  ** Irregular  Attendance  —  A  Cause  of  Retardation,*' 
Psychological  Clinic,  March,  1909. 

*  American  School  Board  Journal,  June,  1914. 


MEMBERSHIP  AND  ATTENDANCE  53 

be  habits  of  punctuality.  From  the  standpoint  of  sound 
manhood,  to  say  nothing  of  the  claims  of  business  and  social 
life  later,  no  pains  should  be  spared  to  establish  habits,  and 
to  fix  in  the  minds  of  children  the  importance  of  prompt- 
ness and  regularity  in  all  school  activities.  Attendance  is 
one  vital  point  at  which  this  type  of  training  should  begin. 

4.  The  first  step  in  meeting  the  issue,  analysis 

Adequate  records  and  reports  necessary.  In  every  man- 
agement problem  a  fuU  understanding  of  the  facts  and 
what  they  mean  to  all  concerned  —  the  child,  the  school, 
the  State  —  is  the  first  step  to  be  taken.  The  State  has 
provided  the  legal  machinery  for  handling  the  problem, 
and  it  is  the  business  of  the  schools  to  make  that  machin- 
ery effective.  This  is  being  done  with  some  degree  of  suc- 
cess in  the  larger  cities,  where  a  complicated  system  of 
records  and  reports  provide  the  necessary  information  for 
the  officers  in  charge,  but  in  the  smaller  towns  and  in  rural 
communities,  where  a  single  attendance  officer  must  cover 
a  large  territory,  the  work  frequently  is  inefficient  or  en- 
tirely neglected,  and  thousands  of  children  are  out  of  school 
as  a  result. 

Cases  demand  individual  treatment.  As  has  been  sug- 
gested above,  the  apparent  cause  of  absence  or  tardiness 
is  not  always  the  real  one.  To  get  at  the  real  cause  the 
teacher  must  know  her  pupils  at  home  as  well  as  at  school. 
Often  the  home  conditions  explain  the  case  fully.  Many 
parents  are  thoughtless  or  indifferent,  and  the  complete 
lack  of  any  system  in  their  home  life  makes  it  practically 
impossible  for  the  child  to  apply  system  to  his  school  work. 
Under  such  circumstances  the  child  deserves  pity  rather 
than  reprimand. 

But  the  home  is  not  always  the  source  of  trouble.  There 
is  the  careless  pupil,  the  physically  defective,  and  also  the 


54  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

truant.  These  cases  must  be  studied  fully.  To  punish 
hastily  is  often  to  aggravate  rather  than  to  remove  the 
cause.  Of  one  thing  the  teacher  may  feel  reasonably  sure, 
and  that  is  that  no  two  cases  are  alike.  This  means  that 
each  case  must  be  studied  individually  if  it  is  to  be  intelli* 
gently  dealt  with. 

Once  the  case  has  been  carefully  diagnosed  some  sort  of 
remedy  may  be  proposed.  Whatever  method  is  decided 
upon  it  must  be  in  terms  of  the  needs  of  the  particular 
child  in  question. 

5,  The  second  step,  what  to  do 

Make  school  life  attractive.  If  the  first  step  is  to  analyze 
the  situation,  the  second  must  be  to  determine  what  action 
to  take.  Prevention  is  to  be  our  first  line  of  attack.  We 
cannot  assume  that  the  issue  will  never  arise,  and  conse- 
quently we  must  try  to  anticipate  it.  This  may  be  done  in 
two  ways,  one  positive  and  the  other  negative.  We  may 
make  school  so  attractive  that  the  child  will  want  to  come, 
or  we  may  resort  to  coercion. 

The  school  may  be  made  attractive  in  two  ways.  First 
by  seeing  to  it  that  the  principles  developed  in  the  above 
chapters  are  fully  appHed  every  day,  and  with  respect  to 
every  pupil  who  enters  school.  Tardiness  is  often  over- 
come entirely  by  having  opening  exercises  that  are  worth 
while. 

The  school  may  also  be  made  attractive  by  the  use  of 
prizes,  holidays,  and  other  kinds  of  rewards.  These  are  for 
the  most  part  little  short  of  bribes,  and  will  usually  react 
badly,  for  the  reason  that  they  imply  that  "  being  good  " 
will  puFchase  some  sort  of  relief  from  the  unpleasantness 
of  school  work.^  The  use  of  an  honor  roll,  keeping  indi- 
vidual records  of  the  pupils  by  themselves,  wholesome  ri- 
*  For  a  full  discussion  of  this  see  chapter  vui. 


MEMBERSHIP  AND  ATTENDANCE  55 

vaJry  between  classes,  a  five-minute  warning  bell,  and  other 
similar  devices  may  often  be  used  to  good  effect,  but  a  poor 
school  will  sooner  or  later  offset  the  effect  of  the  best  de- 
vices, while  a  good  school  will  make  them  unnecessary. 

Coercion  the  last  resort.  When  all  such  efforts  have 
failed,  then  coercion  is  the  only  recourse,  and  no  time 
should  be  lost  in  applying  such  measures  as  will  get  results. 
Here  is  where  the  teacher  becomes  a  diagnostician.  She 
must  make  a  full  study  of  each  case,  looking  into  the  pu- 
pil's home  life,  his  physical  condition,  his  likes  and  dislikes 
of  school  work,  records  of  his  past  conduct  and  scholar- 
ship, kiuds  of  associates  in  school  and  out,  and  thea,  once 
all  the  facts  are  clear,  she  must  attack  the  causes  of  the 
trouble.  Nor  should  she  be  satisfied  until  every  cause  has 
been  removed.  In  such  little  investigations  the  teacher 
will  often  get  the  most  pointed  sorts  of  criticism  of  her  own 
work.  These  she  should  treasure  and  not  scorn. 

In  some  cases  the  teacher  will  be  able  to  remove  the 
cause  with  little  or  no  friction,  but  in  other§  she  will  not. 
Then  some  kind  (rf  force  must  be  used.  Here  the  possibili- 
ties of  error  are  also  great.  Scolding,  threats,  keeping  in 
after  hours,  demerits,  extra  study,  and  aU  similar  devices 
will  only  add  to  the  child's  dislike  of  school,  aud  should 
seldom  or  never  be  used.  Corporal  puuishment,  loss  of 
privileges,  etc.,  may  be  resorted  to  or  the  case  may  go  at 
once  to  the  attendance  oflBcer. 

The  attendance  department.  This  takes  the  case  out  of 
the  teacher's  bauds,  but  suggests  a  certaiu  other  duty  which 
she  has  in  connectioQ  with  matters  of  atteudance,  viz., 
that  of  keeping  accurate  and  full  records  of  every  case,  and 
of  reporting  these  promptly  and  in  good  form  to  the  proper 
oflficer.  The  beginning  of  these  duties  lies  in  taking  care 
that  adequate  excuses  are  brought  from  home  by  the  child 
each  time  he  is  ab^nt  or  tardy.  By  a  little  tact  and  persist- 


56  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

ence,  the  standard  for  excuses  can  be  brought  up  to  where 
it  belongs.  The  next  step  is  recording  the  essential  facts 
for  each  case  for  future  reference,  and  as  a  basis  for  report 
to  the  attendance  officer.  In  the  large  city  the  whole  ques- 
tion of  attendance  is  handled  by  a  separate  department, 
carefully  organized  for  that  piu*pose.  A  study  of  the  or- 
ganization and  working  of  such  a  department  is  recom- 
mended to  the  teacher  who  wishes  a  larger  perspective  for 
this  imp)ortant  asi)ect  of  her  work.  ^ 

By  these  and  similar  means  the  teacher  may  hop)e  to 
put  an  end  to  the  various  kinds  of  leakage  by  way  of  poor 
attendance.  In  doing  so  she  will  guarantee  to  the  child 
protection  against  the  greed  or  ignorance  of  others  and 
against  his  owq  lack  of  foresight,  and  also  will  provide  him 
with  a  right  point  of  view  and  a  wholesome  set  of  habits 
with  respect  to  the  matter  of  regularity  and  promptness 
in  school  work.  Furthermore,  if  due  precaution  is  taken 
to  keep  the  principles  of  regularity  a  ad  punctuality  clearly 
before  the  child  as  principles,  and  fully  applied  in  other 
things,  as  well  as  attendance,  there  is  no  doubt  that  the 
child  will  have  one  acquisition  that  is  as  useful  out  of  school 
as  it  is  in  school. 

6.  Chapter  summary 

In  this  chapter  we  have  outlined  the  problems  to  be  treated 
in  Part  11,  and  have  discussed  the  questions  of  membership  and 
attendance. 

We  have  seen  that  the  teacher's  first  problem  is  to  help  the  child 
to  establish  the  right  sort  of  contacts  with  the  school,  which  if 
accomplished  will  give  him  an  understanding  of  his  duties  and 
privileges  as  a  member  of  a  new  social  body.  This  is  primarily  a 
problem  of  socialization  and  executive  training. 

*  A  brief  and  clear  description  of  the  system  in  use  in  New  York  City 
has  been  recently  published.  See  "The  Bureau  of  Attendance  and  Child 
Welfare  of  the  New  York  City  Public  School  System,"  by  Paul  Klapper, 
in  Educational  Review,  November,  1915. 


MEMBERSHIP  AND  ATTENDANCE  67 

To  manage  this  well  involves  first  of  all  the  question  of  regular 
and  punctual  attendance.  Attendance  is  not  merely  a  personal 
matter  with  the  child  alone,  it  is  of  immense  importance  to  the 
school  and  to  the  State  as  well. 

In  most  schools  there  are  three  general  types  of  cases  that  have 
to  be  dealt  with.  These  are  the  truant,  the  irregular  pupil,  and  the 
pupil  who  is  habitually  behind  tim^.  Innumerable  causes  account 
for  these  cases,  some  reasonable  and  some  unreasonable,  which  the 
teacher  must  understand  before  she  can  hope  to  control.  In  general 
her  diagnosis  of  a  given  case  will  call  for  a  study  of  the  child's  rela- 
tionships with  the  school  and  with  his  work  and  play,  as  well  as 
for  an  understanding  of  his  health  and  of  the  home  influences 
involved.  Her  success  will  depend  upon  her  ability  to  perfect  these 
adjustments,  or  perhaps  finally  upon  resort  to  legal  authority 
exercised  by  the  attendance  department. 

REFERENCES  FOR  ADDITIONAL  READING 

Bagley,  W.  C,  Classroom  Management,  chap.  v. 
Kellogg,  A.  M.,  School  Management,  chap.  vi. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  If  regular  and  punctual  attendance  is  a  fair  measure  of  the  efficiency 
of  your  teaching,  what  figures  would  you  use  in  finding  your  own 
grade  of  efficiency  and  stating  it  in  percentage  form? 

2.  State  the  essential  features  of  the  compulsory-attendance  law  in  your 
State  (see  State  School  Law)  and  explain:  — 

a.  What  officers  are  necessary  to  administer  the  law? 

b.  What  records  and  reports  are  necessary  to  make  the  law  effec- 
tive? 

c.  Just  how  would  you  proceed  in  placing  one  of  your  pupils  in 
the  hands  of  that  law? 

3.  About  what  percentage  of  the  total  enrollment  can  we  expect  to  be 
in  average  daily  attendance?  See  city  and  State  school  reports. 

4.  Make  a  list  of  the  main  facts  you  would  expect  to  bring  to  light  in 
diagnosing  a  case  of  truancy.  What  would  you  do  if  you  found  the 
blame  to  rest  entirely  with  the  parents? 

5.  Why  is  a  careful  study  of  each  case  necessary? 

6.  In  terms  of  the  compulsory  attendance  law  of  your  State,  what  con- 
stitutes a  legitimate  excuse  for  absence? 

7.  What  is  the  influence  of  irregular  attendance  on  the  rate  of  promo- 
tion? Look  up  half  a  dozen  prominent  studies  of  retardation,  or  make 


58  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

a  study  of  the  past  attendance  records  of  an  eighth-grade  class  in 
your  school. 

8.  In  what  way  does  the  child  who  is  frequently  out  of  school  for  a  day 
or  two  at  a  time  impose  an  injustice  on  his  class?  Make  a  careful 
study  of  a  few  cases  in  your  own  room  to  see  just  the  nature  and 
amount  of  trouble  each  case  causes. 

9.  What  special  devices  do  you  know  for  overcoming  tardiness? 

10.  What  objection  is  there  to  the  granting  of  a  half  holiday  to  the  class 
at  the  end  of  the  month,  if  attendance  has  been  perfect? 


CHAPTER  VI 

ORDER  AND  DISCIPLINE 

Outline  of  Chapter 

1.  What  we  mean  by  discipline  —  Two  types  of  discipline  —  Meaning  of  natural  disci- 
pline. 

2.  The  teacher's  problem  —  The  application,  not  the  formulation  of  principles  —  The 
child's  need  of  information. 

S.  Bad  discipline  and  its  causes  —  When  a  school  is  disorderly  —  Studying  and  remov- 
ing the  causes  —  Bad  order  due  to  lack  of  understanding  —  Bad  order  due  to  forgetfulness 
—  Bad  order  due  to  mischievous  or  malicious  motives  —  Looking  for  the  underlying 


4.  The  influence  of  bad  discipline  —  Positive  and  negative  influence  —  Immediate  and 
remote  bearings  of  conduct  —  All  behavior  enters  into  environment. 

5.  Conditions  essential  to  good  order  —  Public  opinion  and  authority  the  bases  of  con- 
trol—  The  teacher  to  help  form  public  opinion  —  Knowledge  the  basis  of  leadership  — 
System  saves  time  and  friction  —  Energy  and  persistence  are  contagious  —  Fair  play  and 
good  cheer  —  Self-control  a  large  element  —  Other  elements  of  leadership. 

6.  Summary  — ^Eleferences  —  Questions. 

1,  What  we  mean  by  discipline 

Two  types  of  discipline.  In  a  well-governed  school,  prob- 
lems of  order  and  discipline^  do  not  exist  apftrt  from  prob- 
lems of  directing  the  regular  work  and  play  of  school  life. 
In  a  badly  governed  school  the  opposite  is  true.  In  the  one 
case  the  question  of  discipline  is  only  an  incident,  a  phase 
of  the  total  school  procedure.  In  the  other  it  is  by  necessity 
an  end  in  itself,  since  there  the  behavior  does  not  facilitate 
study,  recitation,  and  orderly  play,  and  may  even  seriously 
disturb  them.  So  when  we  speak  of  discipline  we  have  in 
mind  the  modes  of  behavior,  the  manner  of  living  and  work- 
ing in  the  school.  When  these  tend  to  bring  teacher  and 
pupils  into  pleasant  and  profitable  relationships,  and  so  to 
produce  a  natural  and  comfortable  social  atmosphere,  we 

^  The  practical  schemes  that  are  being  used  by  city  superintendents  for 
rating  their  teachers  place  the  item  "eflSciency  in  discipline"  as  of  very 
first  importance.  (See  The  Fourteenth  Year  Book  oj  the  National  Society  for 
the  Study  of  Education,  part  n,  p.  19.) 


60  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

call  it  a  well-disciplined  school.    When  they  do  not  we  say 
the  school  lacks  in  discipline. 

Meaning  of  natural  discipline.  Problems  of  order  and 
discipKne  are  by  no  means  confined  to  the  school.  In  fact 
their  real  meaning  may  be  best  understood  if  we  first  exam- 
ine typical  modes  of  behavior  in  other  institutions.  If  we 
look  for  the  problem  of  discipline  in  such  places  as  the 
street  car,  the  church,  the  hotel,  the  bank,  or  the  street,  we 
find  in  each  place  particular  modes  of  behavior  which  are 
adapted  to  the  comfort  and  convenience  of  those  present. 
Yet  in  no  two  of  these  places  is  the  behavior  the  same,  and 
in  no  one  of  them  is  the  behavior  well  adapted  to  school 
purposes.  So  when  we  say  that  the  school  must  be  like  life 
we  do  not  mean  that  its  discipline  must  be  like  the  disci- 
pline in  the  shop  or  home,  or  at  a  picnic.  We  mean  rather 
that  school  discipline  is  to  be  just  as  intimately  adapted  to 
school  life  as  is  the  discipHne  at  church  to  religious  life,  or 
as  is  the  discipline  on  the  street  car  to  the  convenience  and 
comfort  of  the  passengers. 

2,  The  teacher* s  problem 

The  application,  not  the  formulation  of  principles.  The 
teacher's  problem  then  is  one  of  establishing  and  maintain- 
ing standards  of  conduct.  ^  These  standards  cannot  be 
copied  from  standards  in  vogue  outside  the  school,  but  must 
be  determined  by  the  nature  of  school  life  itself. 

This  does  not  mean,  however,  that  school  discipline  has 
nothing  in  common  with  discipHne  elsewhere.  Common 
ideals  and  standards  of  politeness  and  cooperation  obtain 
everywhere  the  same.    Just  as  people  who  are  entering  a 

^  Investigations  have  shown  that  weak  discipline  is  more  often  the 
cause  of  teachers'  failures  than  is  any  other  one  thing.  See  Buellesfield, 
"Causes  of  Failures  among  Teachers,"  in  Educational  Administration  and 
Supervision,  vol.  i,  p.  439  (September,  1915). 


ORDER  AND  DISCIPLINE  61 

car  step  aside  until  passengers  desiring  to  leave  the  car  have 
gotten  off,  so,  in  school,  the  same  principle  of  politeness 
demands  that  a  child  shall  not  break  into  a  line  or  into  a 
game  when  by  so  doing  he  will  discommode  other  pupils. 
The  difference  is  not  in  the  principle  of  conduct,  but  in 
the  occasions  which  caQ  the  principle  into  action.  Thus 
the  teacher's  task  is  not  one  of  developing  a  new  set  of 
moral  or  social  principles  of  behavior.  Hers  is  the  much 
more  practical  task  of  seeing  that  the  accepted  standards  of 
society  are  not  obscured  by  the  new  set  of  conditions  which 
the  child  meets  with  in  the  school,  and  that  they  are  prop)- 
erly  applied  in  the  behavior  best  adapted  to  life  in  the  school. 
The  child's  need  for  information.  When  the  child  enters 
school  for  the  first  time  he  is  quite  as  much  a  stranger  to 
the  appropriate  modes  of  behavior  there  as  is  the  country 
youth  to  the  signals  of  a  traffic  officer  in  a  large  city.  And 
just  as  the  boy  from  the  country  has  to  learn  the  law  and 
the  etiquette  of  city  streets,  so  the  new  pupil  must  learn 
the  law  and  the  etiquette  of  the  schoolroom.  Consequently 
disciplining  a  school  involves,  first  of  all,  a  clear  conception 
of  the  best  modes  of  behavior,  that  is,  a  clear  aim,  on  the 
part  of  the  teacher;  and  secondly,  the  estabhshment  of 
those  modes  in  school  practice  through  careful  instruction. 
This  makes  discipline  a  positive  constructive  program,  with 
development  and  not  suppression  as  the  end. 

3.  Bad  discipline  and  its  causes 

When  a  school  is  disorderly.  We  have  said  that  a  school 
is  disorderly  when  the  accepted  modes  of  behavior  are  not 
conducive  to  the  chief  aims  of  the  school.  If  people  began 
to  enter  the  train  before  the  passengers  had  alighted  there 
would  be  much  loss  of  time.  If  automobile  drivers  had  not 
adopted  the  rule  of  "  keeping  to  the  right  "  there  would  be 
confusion,  to  say  the  least.    Ladies  remove  their  hats  at 


62  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

the  theater,  the  clerk  waits  on  the  customers  in  the  order 
of  their  coming,  people  enter  the  chm-ch  quietly,  etc.,  be- 
cause these  are  the  accepted  "  best  ways  "  for  all  concerned. 

Similarly  in  school  there  is  confusion,  loss  of  time,  and 
httle  accompHshed  when  the  accepted  ways  of  doing  things 
are  not  ways  which  are  best  suited  to  the  end  sought.  If  all 
talk  at  once  no  one  can  hear,  if  some  play  while  others  work 
there  is  little  satisfaction  for  either  group.  If  children  move 
at  widely  different  rates  of  speed  in  entering  or  leaving  the 
room  there  is  friction  and  discomfort,  if  a  pupil  does  not 
respond  promptly  when  called  upon  to  recite  there  is  loss  of 
time  for  all. 

Yet  the  order  at  the  station,  on  the  street,  and  in  the 
store,  is  not  always  perfect.  The  caU  of  the  conductor  to 
**Let  the  passengers  off,  please";  the  quiet  voice  of  the 
usher  saying,  "  Please  remove  your  hat ";  the  clerk's  "  Par- 
don, sir,  I  believe  this  gentleman  is  ahead  of  you,"  suggest 
to  us  that  some  one  has  failed  to  conform  to  the  accepted 
best  style  of  conduct.  Some  fail  to  conform  because  they 
do  not  know  the  accepted  procedure,  others  because  they 
temporarily  do  not  think,  and  others  in  order  to  get  an 
advantage  for  themselves.  Similarly  in  school  there  is  the 
same  need  for  a  firm  quiet  command  to  set  the  ignorant, 
the  forgetful,  and  the  mischievous  or  mean  pupil  straight 
in  line  with  the  best  behavior. 

Studying  and  removing  the  causes.  The  school  that  is 
a  failure  because  of  disorder  is  one  where  the  many  instead 
of  the  few  ignore  the  best  ways  of  doing  things,  where  the 
common  principles  of  ix)liteness  have  given  place  to  indif- 
ference and  insolence,  and  where  much  of  the  conduct  is 
designed  to  defeat  the  chief  aims  of  the  school.  Here  the 
result  is  anarchy,  the  occasional  expression  of  mob  violence, 
and  general  social  disintegration. 

If  such  infringements  of  good  order  in  the  school  are  to 


ORDER  AND  DISCIPLINE  63 

be  corrected,  the  causes  must  be  studied  and  removed.  The 
teacher  cannot  long  remain  a  mere  poHce  oflScer  in  her  room. 
Why  then  does  the  question  of  discipUne  arise,  why  are 
the  accepted  modes  of  behavior  in  the  classroom  disturbed 
by  the  ignorant,  the  forgetful,  or  the  malicious  child?  It 
is  with  the  motive  that  any  effective  remedy  must  deal. 
A  child  should  not  be  punished  for  not  conforming  to  a  pro- 
cedure which  he  does  not  understand.  A  brief  analysis  of 
a  few  typical  causes  of  bad  order  therefore  should  at  least 
furnish  the  teacher  with  a  more  critical  point  of  view  for 
meeting  such  cases. 

Bad  order  due  to  lack  of  understanding.  The  child  who 
is  entering  school  for  the  first  time  has  much  more  to  learn 
outside  of  books  than  he  has  inside.  He  has  a  whole  set  of 
new  adjustments  to  make,  some  physical,  some  intellec- 
tual, but  mainly  social.  He  is  facing  life  in  a  new  and  strange 
institution,  and  has  before  him  the  large  task  not  only  of 
understanding  the  institution,  but  of  becoming  a  part  of 
it.  He  must  learn  to  play  a  part,  to  cooperate  with  a  group 
of  strangers  in  a  new  enterprise.  If  with  such  children  the 
teacher  fails  to  make  very  clear  the  plan  of  work  from  hour 
to  hour  there  will  be  hesitating,  and  continuous  miscarriage 
of  the  program.  However  innocent  this  disorder  may  be 
as  to  motive,  it  is  none  the  less  dangerous  to  the  develop- 
ment of  right  habits  of  procedure. 

There  are  certain  other  cases  which  come  under  this  head 
which  the  teacher  must  learn  to  recognize.  Children  come 
from  different  types  of  homes,  where  different  standards  of 
politeness  and  refinement  prevail.  It  is  therefore  much 
more  difficult  for  some  children  to  conduct  themselves  ac- 
ceptably in  the  school  than  it  is  for  others.  The  teacher 
must  not  mistake  crudity  which  is  due  to  lack  of  home 
training,  for  crudity  which  is  due  to  indifference  or  maUce. 

Bad  order  due  to  forgetfulness.    The  second  group  of 


64  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

cases  are  those  which  are  due  to  inattention  and  forgetful- 
ness.  How  frequently  a  child  excuses  himself  simply  by 
saying,  "  I  forgot."  And  so  the  child  forgets  the  lesson 
assignment;  forgets  to  bring  his  book  to  school;  forgets  his 
place  in  the  line  when  fire  drill  is  called;  forgets  about  crowd- 
ing, leaving  his  books  in  disorder,  keeping  his  written  work 
neat,  cleaning  his  shoes,  washing  his  hands,  or  being  cour- 
teous to  other  pupils. 

Such  disorderliness  is  serious  because  it  is  so  deep  seated. 
It  is  a  case  of  disorderly  mind,  of  slovenly  habits  of  thought 
as  well  as  of  conduct.  True  there  may  be  behind  this  habit- 
ual inattention  and  forgetfulness  certain  physical  or  men- 
tal defects  which  tend  to  distract  the  child's  attention,  and 
these  are  among  the  sources  to  which  the  teacher  must  look 
for  the  full  explanation  of  the  causes.  But  habits  of  in- 
attention and  forgetfulness  may  also  be  due  to  external 
causes.  If  there  are  no  estabhshed  ways  of  doing  things  in 
the  school,  ways  which  the  teacher  regularly  insists  upon, 
then  it  is  easy  to  forget  any  exception  to  this.  If  assign- 
ments are  not  made  with  care,  and  if  pupils  are  not  regu- 
larly held  up  to  those  assignments,  inattention  is  sure  to 
result.  If  the  teacher  excuses  a  second  or  third  offense  there 
is  little  to  induce  the  child  to  remember. 

Bad  order  due  to  mischievous  or  malicious  motives.  The 
third  group  of  cases  are  those  which  the  child  himself  rec- 
ognizes as  disorderly  behavior.  They  range  all  the  way 
from  innocent  pranks,  to  studied  malicious  acts  designed 
to  destroy  good  order.  Bubbling  childhood  must  not  be 
ignored.  There  must  be  room  in  the  school  for  laughter  and 
fun  as  well  as  for  serious  study.  Yet  there  is  a  point  beyond 
which  jokes  and  pranks  cannot  wisely  be  permitted  to  go. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  a  large  percentage  of  the 
little  annoying  mischievous  acts  is  committed  merely 
for  fun,  and  that  the  fun  is  not  in  the  act  itself  but  rather 


ORDER  AND  DISCIPLINE  65 

in  displaying  the  act  before  other  pupils.  John  purposely 
mispronounces  a  word  in  reading,  or  attaches  a  paper  to 
Tom's  coat,  merely  to  cause  a  laugh.  Throwing  spitbaJls 
at  the  blackboard  would  not  amuse  James  were  it  not  for 
the  fact  that  other  children  are  looking  on  and  marveling 
at  his  daring.  The  bent  pin,  the  sly  nudge,  the  hidden  hat, 
or  chalk  down  a  neighbor's  back,  are  fiu'ther  familiar  illus- 
trations. 

These  acts,  while  by  no  means  harmless,  do  not  present 
the  serious  problem  which  arises  in  cases  of  dishonesty, 
theft,  immorality,  fighting,  etc.  Of  course,  home  training, 
or  a  lack  of  it,  influences  in  these  directions  as  well  as  others. 
E  the  moral  standards  of  the  home  are  low  the  children 
from  that  home  present  a  special  problem  for  that  very 
reason.  But  the  causes  are  not  all  in  home  training,  or  in 
human  nature,  or  in  mental  or  physical  defects;  they  are 
often  in  the  associations  between  children.  One  bad  pupil  in 
a  school  may  lead  several  good  ones  into  very  wrong  ways. 
A  cigarette  smoker  is  likely  to  have  imitators  even  among 
children  from  good  homes  if  careful  supervision  is  not  exer- 
cised. The  gang,  or  the  clique,  or  the  club,  is  in  many 
schools  the  most  dangerous  source  of  trouble.  Out  of  fra- 
ternity the  boy  or  girl  is  kindly  and  genteel;  in  it,  snobbery 
often  becomes  a  fashion  which  spreads  like  an  infection 
to  good  and  bad  alike.  Alone,  the  boy  does  not  think  of 
smoking,  or  gambling,  or  robbery;  in  the  gang,  he  goes  with 
the  crowd.  It  is  these  associations,  these  social  forces  or 
fashions,  which  constitute  the  real  cause. 

Looking  for  the  underlying  causes.  In  all  cases  of  bad 
conduct,  then,  we  must  look  below  the  surface  for  the  real 
motive.  It  may  be  deep  down  in  human  nature,  it  may  be 
in  present  mental  or  physical  conditions,  it  may  be  in  home 
training  or  street  training;  but  it  may  also  be  within  the 
school  itself.  If  so,  look  to  the  general  ideals  of  conduct  and 


W  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

of  work  which  are  being  enforced  and  see  whether  they  are 
steadily,  or  only  spasmodically  insisted  upon.  Look  to  the 
hygienic  conditions  of  the  room,  and  to  facilities  for  work. 
Look  to  the  social  life,  to  the  relations  between  pupils.  Is 
John  mischievous  simply  because  he  sits  near  James;  has 
swearing,  or  smoking,  or  bullying,  or  coarse  play,  jokes, 
and  laughter  become  fashionable  because  of  a  certain  pupil; 
is  there  any  sort  of  group  organization  which  is  tending  to 
isolate  certain  children  from  others?  Or  again,  is  the  teacher 
a  model  of  gentility  and  good  breeding,  is  she  industrious 
and  businesslike  in  her  work,  and  is  she  thoroughly  human 
with  it  all.f^  These  are  the  possible  sources  to  which  we 
must  look  for  the  explanation  of  bad  order  in  the  school. 
Over  a  few  of  these  causes  the  teacher  may  have  no  very  di- 
rect control,  but  most  of  them  she  can  reasonably  hope  to 
remove  once  they  are  fully  understood. 

4.  The  influence  of  had  discipline 

Positive  and  negative  influence.  The  influences  of  bad 
discipline  are  both  positive  and  negative.  Positive,  in  that 
the  individual  child  and  the  class  as  a  whole  develop  habits 
and  ideals  of  behavior  which  are  detrimental  in  life;  nega- 
tive, in  that  the  fundamental  aims  of  the  school  are  being 
defeated.  Likewise  the  influence  may  be  only  temporary, 
or  it  may  be  permanent;  it  may  be  direct,  or  indirect. 

If  the  immediate  value  of  good  behavior  is  in  a  happy 
well-directed  schoolroom,  where  eflGicient  work  is  being 
accomplished,  its  ultimate  value  is  in  sound  moral,  social, 
and  intellectual  habits  and  ideals.  Consequently  any  dis- 
order whatsoever  is  a  force  in  opposition  to  these  ends.  If 
a  child  is  permitted  to  use  coarse  language,  to  leave  his 
desk  and  books  in  disorder,  to  walk  noisily  through  the 
room,  to  wear  his  hat  in  the  house,  it  is  true  that  the  im- 
mediate effect  appears  to  be  of  but  sUght  consequence,  and 


ORDER  AND  DISCIPLINE  07 

such  acts  are  often  permitted  to  pass  unnoticed  or  with 
only  a  sHght  reminder.  The  ultimate  effect  however  is  a 
group  of  habits  and  ideals  of  slovenliness  where  there 
should  be  habits  and  ideals  of  refinement. 

Immediate  and  remote  bearings  of  conduct.  In  such 
cases  it  is  not  the  immediate  but  the  remote  bearing  of  the 
conduct  that  counts.  The  school  may  suffer  slightly,  but 
it  wiU  not  imimediately  go  to  pieces  under  such  strain. 
Similarly,  the  child  may  seem  a  bit  less  refined  but  not 
specially  imruly.  But  if  passed  imnoticed  the  accimiulated 
effect  of  such  acts  will  ultimately  not  only  rob  the  child  of 
the  opportunity  to  develop  habits  of  refinement,  but  will 
fasten  upon  him  habits  of  the  opposite  sort.  Similarly, 
by  its  influence  on  others  it  will  coarsen  the  behavior  in 
the  room,  and  in  time  wiU  lower  the  accepted  standard  of 
good  order. 

In  other  cases  of  a  more  serious  nature  the  same  prin- 
ciples hold  true,  only  that  the  influence  is  increased  in  in- 
tensity. An  act  which  involves  genuine  disobedience,  gross 
neglect,  or  base  immorality,  is  immediately  destructive  of 
the  sense  of  decency  and  justice  both  to  the  child  and  to 
the  group,  and  if  passed  unnoticed  by  the  teacher  will 
quickly  undermine  the  order  of  the  school. 

All  behavior  enters  into  environment.  All  behavior, 
good  or  bad,  by  one  or  by  many  pupils,  constitutes  a  part 
of  the  environment,  and  operates  as  one  of  the  educational 
forces  under  which  the  child  is  placed.  As  such  its  influence 
is  good  or  bad  in  some  degree.  It  is  not  neutral.  There  is 
no  waiting  between  acts;  growth  is  going  on  in  terms  of 
whatever  forces  there  are  present. 

Again  every  act  in  the  room  which  is  recognized  by  the 
teacher  as  in  the  least  imruly  or  out  of  line  with  her  ideas 
of  good  order  consumes  a  certain  amoimt  of  her  energy 
which  might  otherwise  go  into  her  teaching.    A  constant 


68  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

drain  of  this  sort  will  in  time  result  in  nervousness  which 
rapidly  lowei-s  the  teacher's  power  to  control  either  by  ex- 
ample or  precept.  The  same  influence  will  be  felt  by  the 
pupils,  particularly  by  those  who  are  sensitive  to  any  sort 
of  noise  or  friction.  Disorder  therefore  thrives  on  what  it 
feeds  upon.  The  same,  however,  is  just  as  true  of  orderli- 
ness and  system, 

5.  Conditions  essential  to  good  order 

Public  opinion  and  authority  the  bases  of  control.  As 
on  the  train,  in  the  store,  or  on  the  street,  so  in  the  school 
there  are  two  forces  which  operate  to  maintain  good  dis- 
cipline. These  forces  are  public  opinion  and  legal  author- 
ity. Just  as  the  burglar  is  not  restrained  by  public  opin- 
ion from  imposing  upon  society,  and  so  makes  it  necessary 
to  have  peace  officers  who  can  apply  force,  so  in  the  school 
there  is  the  occasional  pupil  who  for  one  reason  or  another 
will  not  conform  to  the  accepted  usages  in  the  school  with- 
out coercion.  Likewise  as  the  mere  presence  of  a  police- 
man restrains  miany  from  unsocial  acts  on  the  street,  so 
the  mere  presence  of  a  strong  teacher,  who  habitually  deals 
promptly  and  vigorously  with  offenders  in  the  school,  con- 
stitutes an  important  restraining  force. 

The  teacher  to  help  form  public  opinion.  For  the  teacher 
to  control  public  opinion  in  the  school  then  is  of  the  utmost 
importance.  If  John  is  told  in  the  presence  of  the  class  that 
he  is  not  to  repeat  a  certain  act,  he  will  almost  certainly 
look  about  to  see  whether  the  other  pupils  are  with  him  or 
against  him.  If  he  feels  that  the  teacher's  reprimand  is 
in  disfavor,  he  is  very  sure  to  cause  further  trouble.  If, 
on  the  other  hand,  he  detects  no  sympathy  in  the  glances 
which  other  pupils  give  him  he  is  very  likely  to  yield 
promptly  to  the  teacher's  wish. 

How  to  get  and  maintain  control  over  public  opinion 


ORDER  AND  DISCIPLINE  69 

in  the  school  thus  becomes  the  teacher's  first  large  prob- 
lem in  establishing  conditions  for  good  discipline.  This  can 
be  done  only  through  the  exercise  of  leadership.  A  boss  who 
controls  a  school  by  a  constant  display  of  authority  will  win 
only  by  suppressing  the  children's  freedom  in  a  very  large 
sense.  If  in  the  end  such  a  teacher  does  not  appear  to  have 
failed  it  will  be  only  in  appearance,  for  under  such  oppres- 
sion children  do  not  learn  to  think  for  themselves  and  to 
control  and  direct  their  own  energies  among  their  fellows. 
While  authority  is  in  no  sense  to  be  surrendered  by  the 
teacher,  neither  is  it  to  be  used  for  mere  display,  or  because 
to  lead  is  often  more  troublesome  than  to  drive. 

Knowledge  the  basis  of  leadership.  No  one  can  lead 
who  does  not  know  the  way.  The  teacher  who  does  not 
know  more  than  she  must  teach,  who  does  not  frequently 
do  some  fresh  thinking  about  her  subjects,  cannot  long 
hide  these  limitations  from  children.  And  while  children 
respect,  even  reverence  wisdom,  they  are  quick  to  scoff  at 
a  lack  of  it,  and  no  teacher  can  quickly  regain  a  child's  con- 
fidence on  this  point  once  it  has  been  lost. 

System  saves  time  and  friction.  A  place  for  ever^hing 
and  everything  in  its  place  is  a  maxim  which  applies  not 
only  to  furniture,  supplies,  window  shades,  and  wraps,  but 
to  children,  to  recitations,  to  study  time,  to  illustrations 
in  teaching,  and  to  ideas  as  well.  The  teacher  who  be- 
gins the  day  without  a  definite  plan  of  her  work  will  fre- 
quently have  to  retrace  her  steps.  The  geography  class  i? 
called,  and  only  after  the  recitation  is  started  does  the 
teacher  discover  that  a  certain  important  map  has  not 
been  hung;  that  the  specimens  of  grain,  stone,  or  oil  from 
the  fields,  quarries,  or  wells  of  the  region  being  studied,  are 
still  in  the  cabinet.  An  assignment  in  history  is  made  by 
saying  to-morrow  we  will  take  the  lesson  on  the  settlement 
at  Jamestown,  but  no  suggei^ion  is  made  that  the  children 


70  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

look  at  the  maps,  and  no  reference  is  made  to  a  delightful 
little  book  full  of  stories  about  John  Smith.  Consequently 
the  next  day  when  these  things  are  brought  in  by  the 
teacher  they  are  but  half  appreciated,  because  the  chil- 
dren were  not  properly  prepared  for  them.  Time  is  lost 
by  trying  to  do  for  the  children  things  they  would  have 
done  for  themselves  had  their  work  been  properly  systema- 
tized. 

Similarly  in  moving  the  children  into  and  out  of  the  room, 
in  getting  supplies  distributed,  in  the  fire  drill,  where  the 
procedure  from  the  beginning  should  be  systematized  and 
reduced  to  habit,  there  is  certain  to  be  confusion  and  all  its 
evil  consequences  where  and  when  such  system  fails  to  do 
its  work. 

Energy  and  persistence  are  contagious.  If  the  teacher 
knows  her  work  thoroughly,  has  it  well  systematized,  and 
then  pursues  it  with  energy  and  persistence,  the  example 
will  surely  be  followed  by  her  pupils.  Chancellor  Jordan 
has  said  that  "  the  world  steps  aside  to  let  a  man  pass  who 
knows  where  he  is  going.'*  It  is  this  type  of  man  who  puts 
his  knowledge  to  account  in  the  achievement  of  a  purpose, 
and  does  not  quit  till  that  purpose  is  achieved.  Such  a 
teacher  is  irresistible  as  a  leader  of  children,  who  are  quick 
to  imitate  behavior  which  they  admire.  Such  a  teacher  does 
not  leave  tasks  half  done,  nor  does  she  permit  pupils  to  do 
so.  If  a  theme  is  handed  in  which  is  not  neat,  then  it  must 
be  done  over.  Nor  does  it  stop  there,  for  all  written  work 
is  watched  for  the  same  thing,  and  the  idea  of  neatness  is 
pushed  further  to  include  arrangement  of  books  and  papers, 
clean  shoes,  hands,  face,  nails,  and  teeth,  clean  language, 
and  clean  sport. 

The  teacher  who  makes  no  mean  no,  and  yes  mean  yes, 
is  the  teacher  who  is  obeyed  without  question  or  argument. 
When  snowballing  has  been  forbidden  on  the  street  the 


ORDER  AND  DISCIPLINE  71 

matter  is  not  left  to  care  for  itself.  While  the  wise  teacher 
will  not  make  herself  a  spy  she  will  take  care  to  know  that 
such  acts  have  ceased,  and  where  they  do  not  she  will  deal 
with  them  promptly  till  they  have  been  completely  stopped. 
If  she  tells  a  boy  that  he  must  have  his  hair  combed  she 
will  follow  the  case  morning  after  morning  till  the  habit 
is  fixed.  The  very  certainty  that  the  teacher  means  what 
she  says,  that  she  will  do  exactly  what  she  says  she  will  do, 
and  do  it  in  no  half-hearted  way,  wiU  perhaps  be  feared 
by  a  few  who  can  only  be  conquered  by  fear,  but  will 
be  respected  by  all,  and  imitated  by  most.  Such  disinte- 
grating forces  as  laziness,  slothfulness,  irregularity,  cannot 
thrive  in  such  an  atmosphere. 

Fair  play  and  good  cheer.  Pessimism  and  discontent 
cannot  thrive  in  an  atmosphere  of  fair  play  and  good  cheer. 
In  every  schoolroom  justice,  seasoned  with  mercy  of  course, 
must  be  dealt  out  to  all  alike.  There  must  be  no  favorites. 
The  most  troublesome  child  is  likely  to  be  a  strong  admirer 
of  the  principle  of  the  "  square  deal,"  and  all  children  will 
support  the  teacher  in  her  insistence  upon  the  application 
of  that  principle  on  the  playground,  in  the  recitation,  in 
her  own  assignments  of  work,  and  in  her  administration 
of  punishment. 

But  justice  or  fair  play  is  cold  and  harsh  unless  applied 
in  a  spirit  of  good  cheer.  The  successful  banker  is  one  who 
can  refuse  a  loan  to  his  customer  and  yet  send  him  away 
feeling  that  he  has  been  well  treated.  Anger  is  no  part  of 
justice,  and  in  almost  any  case  will  be  resented.  In  school 
government  it  is  often  necessary  to  be  firm,  but  firmness 
is  always  strengthened  and  never  weakened  by  kindness. 
A  cheerful  face  and  cheerful  words  dispel  suspicion  and 
pessimism  and  stimulate  cooperation.  The  clouded,  tear- 
stained  face  of  a  pupil  entering  to  relate  a  grievance  is  often 
brightened  by  a  cheerful  remark  from  his  teacher,  who, 


72  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

anticipating  the  child's  errand,  deliberately  sidetracks  it 
till  the  child  is  in  a  mood  not  to  exaggerate  the  facts. 

Self-control  a  large  element.  It  is  almost  self-evident 
that  one  who  cannot  control  himself  cannot  control  others. 
Children  as  well  as  adults  respect  the  man  of  poise,  because 
he  is  not  one  to  be  moved  by  mere  sentiment  to  do  foolish 
things.  The  teacher  who  can  control  herself  under  vexing 
circumstances,  so  that  she  does  not  act  hastily,  or  show 
anger,  or  speak  harshly,  is  the  teacher  to  trust,  if  only  for 
the  reason  that  the  children  need  such  an  example  before 
them  to  imitate. 

Other  elements  of  leadership.  There  are  other  elements 
of  leadership  which  enter  in  a  lesser  way,  such  as  a  good 
voice,  proper  dress,  manners,  and  speech,  and  good  health, 
which  will  help  to  determine  the  extent  to  which  the  teacher 
will  be  able  to  direct  the  public  opinion  within  her  school, 
and  so  to  maintain  high  standards  of  order  and  discipline 
through  the  power  of  leadership. 

If  the  teacher  will  apply  the  principles  here  set  forth  to 
the  physical  conditions  of  her  room  and  equipment,  to  her 
relations  with  pupils,  to  her  instruction,  and  to  her  own 
preparation  for  her  work,  she  will  have  provided  the  most 
favorable  conditions  possible  for  good  order.  This  is  attack- 
ing the  problem  in  a  constructive  way.  Pupils  living  in 
such  an  atmosphere  will  have  a  program  so  full  and  so  well 
organized  that  there  will  be  little  time  left  for  irregularities 
of  any  sort. 

In  spite  of  such  a  program,  however,  the  exceptional 
case  will  arise,  over  which  public  opinion  and  good  teaching 
will  have  no  influence.  Such  cases  can  only  be  met  by  the 
firm  hand  of  authority.  If  obedience  is  not  willing,  it  must 
be  enforced.  How  force  is  to  be  used,  and  its  relation  to  the 
fundamental  task  of  instruction  will  be  problems  for  an- 
other chapter. 


ORDER  AND  DISCIPLINE  7S 


6.  Chapter  summary 

To  summarize,  then,  let  us  keep  in  mind  that  school  discipline 
has  to  do  with  modes  of  behavior  in  the  school,  in  the  same  sense 
that  applies  on  the  street,  or  elsewhere  in  the  world  outside  the 
school;  that  such  problems  can  never  be  separated  from  the  regular 
work  of  instruction;  and  that  they  are,  for  the  teacher,  an  end  in 
themselves  only  when  behavior  constitutes  rebellion  against  the 
school.  Let  us  remember  that  the  teacher's  problem  is  that  of 
establishing  the  commonly-accepted  moral  and  social  principles  of 
conduct  in  the  behavior  of  her  pupils  individually  and  as  a  group, 
keeping  in  mind  that  bad  discipline  is  detrimental  in  the  school  in 
precisely  the  same  sense  that  it  is  detrimental  on  the  street,  and 
that  it  can  only  be  corrected  by  removing  its  cause;  that  the  cause 
may  be  inherent  in  the  child's  mental  or  physical  make-up,  in  his 
present  physical  or  mental  conditions,  in  his  previous  training  or 
the  lack  of  it,  or  in  the  way  in  which  the  school  is  conducted. 

Let  us  remember  that  the  teacher  must  study  each  case,  with  a 
view  to  removing  its  cause;  or  anticipate  cases,  by^setting  up  condi- 
tions which  will  tend  to  prevent  their  appearance.  And  further, 
that  such  conditions  can  only  be  established  through  thenlnfluence 
of  leadership  and  authority.  Leadership  involves  a  f^  knowledge 
of  what  and  how  to  teach,  the  use  of  systematic  methods  of  work, 
the  application  of  energy,  persistence,  justice?  and  good  cheer; 
and  the  use  of  self-control,  good  manners,  dress,  voice,  and  lan- 
guage. Authority  must  be  used  sparingly  and  with  dignity,  and 
never  for  mere  display,  or  because  it  is  easier  than  to  lead.  Finally, 
we  must  bear  in  mind  that  true  leadership  will  always  be  backed 
up  by  public  opinion,  which  is  one  of  the  most  potent  forces  for 
control  in  the  school  as  it  is  everywhere  else  in  life. 


REFERENCES  FOR  ADDITIONAL  READING 

Bagley,  W.  C,  School  Discipline. 
Morehouse,  Francis  M.,  Discipline  of  the  School. 
Perry,  A.  C,  Jr.,  Discipline  as  a  School  Problem. 

Smith,  W.  R.,  Educational  Sociology,  chap,  xni,  "The  Socialization  of 
Discipline." 


74  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Explain  the  meaning  of  discipline  in  the  light  of  the  statement  that 
in  a  well-governed  school  problems  of  order  and  discipline  do  not 
exist  apart  from  problems  of  directing  the  regular  work  and  play  of 
the  school. 

2.  When  is  a  school  said  to  be  badly  disciphned?  Mention  several  cases 
of  bad  behavior  in  the  school,  and  several  cases  of  a  similar  sort  which 
might  occur  on  the  street  or  at  a  public  assembly.  What  common 
elements  do  you  find  in  the  two  sets  of  cases? 

3.  To  what  extent  and  in  what  specific  ways  do  the  established  principles 
of  good  behavior  apply  in  schoolroom  behavior? 

4.  To  what  extent  is  the  problem  for  a  foreign  child,  or  a  child  entering 
school  for  the  first  time,  a  problem  of  learning  lessons  from  books? 
To  what  extent  is  it  a  problem  of  adjusting  himself  to  a  new  and 
strange  set  of  physical  and  social  conditions?  Is  the  teacher's  large 
problem  in  such  cases  that  of  teaching  book  lessons,  or  is  it  mainly 
that  of  establishing  modes  of  behavior  that  are  well  adapted  to  the 
handling  of  book  lessons?  What  are  some  of  the  things  a  child  would 
have  to  learn  during  his  first  week  in  school? 

6.  What  is  the  importance  of  establishing  right  modes  of  behavior  from 
the  start?  Mention  certain  parts  of  school  procedure  which  should 
be  reduced  to  routine. 

6.  Outline  the  causes  of  bad  discipline,  and  suggest  typical  cases  under 
each  type.  Why  is  "I  did  n't  think"  a  poor  excuse  for  a  child  to  offer 
as  an  explanation  of  wrong  behavior?  How  can  children  be  taught  to 
remember  the  right  thing  to  do? 

7.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  study  each  individual  case  of  disorderly  con- 
duct separately?  What  would  you  look  for  as  the  possible  explana- 
tion of  a  disturbance  due  to  too  much  whispering? 

8.  Explain,  by  typical  cases,  what  is  meant  by  positive  and  negative 
influence  of  bad  conduct. 

9.  In  what  ways  does  popular  opinion  operate  in  the  control  of  the 
school?  Should  the  teacher  definitely  undertake  to  formulate  the 
public  opinion  of  her  class  with  respect  to  such  problems  as  (1)  the 
degree  of  quiet  best  suited  to  the  work,  (2)  the  extent  to  which  whis- 
pering is  permissible,  (3)  fair  play  on  the  playground,  (4)  hard  work, 
(5)  good  manners,  (6)  right  use  of  library,  (7)  proper  reading  matter, 
etc.? 

10.  Where  will  authority  be  effective  in  formulating  public  opinion? 
Under  what  circmnstances  would  any  use  of  force  cause  the  teacher 
to  lose  control  of  public  opinion? 

11.  Name  the  elements  of  leadership  which  a  teacher  must  show  posses- 
sion of  if  she  hopes  to  direct  public  opinion  in  her  room.  Outline 
several  cases,  to  show  how  these  elements  play  a  part  in  control. 


CHAPTER  Vn 

SCHOOL  PUNISHMENTS 

Outline  of  Chapter 

1.  The  reason  for  punishment  —  The  group  more  important  than  the  individual. 

2.  The  meaning  and  end  of  punishment  —  Punishment  means  pain  —  Must  not  express 
anger  —  Immediate  and  remote  aims  —  Fundamental  aims  in  pimishment  —  Retribution 
not  an  aim. 

3.  Characteristics  of  effective  punishments  —  Certainty  the  chief  deterrent  —  It  must 
be  painful  —  It  must  be  understood. 

4.  Kinds  of  punishments  —  Corporal  punishments  —  Reproofs  and  rebukes  —  Other 
punishments  —  Suspensions  and  expulsions. 

5.  The  administration  of  punishments  —  Need  for  punishment  a  teaching  situation  — 
Like  other  instruction  punishment  is  individualistic  —  Time  and  place  for  punishment  — 
The  teacher's  responsibility. 

6.  Summary  —  References  —  Questions. 

1»  The  reason  Jot  punishment 

The  group  more  important  than  the  individual.  However 
skillful  the  teacher  may  be  in  directing  the  public  opinion 
in  her  school,  however  cleverly  she  may  lead  her  pupils  in 
the  establishment  of  right  modes  of  behavior  toward  each 
other,  toward  their  work,  and  toward  their  play,  there  will 
always  be  the  exceptional  child,  who,  for  one  reason  or  an- 
other, will  not  conform  to  the  accepted  fashions  of  his  little 
society.  For  such  children  there  must  always  exist  the  rUle 
of  force.  The  school  must  be  protected  against  the  mis- 
conduct of  any  of  its  members  who  are  inclined  to  ignore 
the  rights  and  wishes  of  others,  for  society  never  sacrifices 
the  group  for  the  individual. 

Penalties,  therefore,  must  constitute  a  part  of  the  ma- 
chinery for  maintaining  good  discipline.  As  such,  though, 
they  exist  for  use  only  in  these  exceptional  cases,  and  are 
never  for  display. 

2.  The  meaning  and  end  of  punishment 

Punishment  means  pain.  Punishment  means  pain  and 
loss  inflicted  upon  offenders,  and  unless  there    is    pain, 


76  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

physical  or  mental,  there  is  no  punishment.  This  is  obvious 
enough,  but  it  is  sometimes  overlooked  by  teachers  who 
mistake  their  own  feeling  of  relief  at  having  "  disposed  of 
the  case  "  for  pain  to  the  offender.  A  cuff  on  the  ear,  a 
sharp  rebuke,  an  order  to  do  so  and  so  next  time,  consumes 
the  teacher's  ire  and  leaves  her  feeling  easier,  while  it  may 
only  provoke  a  knowing  smile  from  the  children,  which 
pleases  the  offender.  Such  not  only  is  not  punishment, 
but  it  is  a  severe  blow  to  good  order  and  tends  to  destroy 
the  dignity  of  the  teacher's  position. 

Must  not  express  anger.  Punishment  must  not  mean 
merely  an  outlet  for  the  teacher's  anger.  Historically  pun- 
ishment has  been  supposed  to  represent  the  claims  of  jus- 
#4ice,  and  never  the  claims  of  some  overwrought  emotion 
on  the  part  of  the  one  who  administers  it.  Punishment  is 
to  uphold  the  just  claims  of  the  school,  and  not  the  per- 
sonal rights  of  the  teacher.  The  teacher  is  always  in  danger 
of  interpreting  an  offense  in  terms  of  a  personal  insult  to 
herself,  whereupon  punishment  becomes  a  matter  of  "  get- 
ting even  "  with  the  pupil.  No  offense  should  ever  be  so 
interpreted.  It  may  be  so  intended  by  the  pupil,  but  the 
teacher  will  add  much  to  her  power  by  making  it  clear  that 
the  offense  is  against  the  school,  and  against  the  teacher's 
position,  and  not  at  all  against  her  personally.  That  makes 
the  teacher's  attitude  that  of  protector  of  the  rights  of 
others,  and  not  of  her  own.  Calmness  and  reasonableness 
then,  instead  of  anger,  will  characterize  her  attitude,  and 
punishment  will  mean  pain  and  regret  instead  of  personal 
resentment. 

Immediate  and  remote  aims.  The  immediate  aim  of 
punishment  then  is  to  maintain  the  dignity  and  rights  of 
the  school  and  of  the  teacher's  position,  and  to  inflict  pain 
on  the  offender.  It  is  to  reestablish  right  relationships.  The 
remote  aim  is  to  make  those  relationships  more  secure.  This 


SCHOOL  PUNISHMENTS  77 

latter  purpose  tends  to  broaden  the  possible  service  which 
school  penalties  may  be  expected  to  render. 

Right  relationships  are  not  reestabhshed  until  the  of- 
fender is  himself  again  a  cooperating  member  of  the  group. 
This  he  cannot  become  until  he  is  completely  reformed, 
when  he  will  again  possess  the  confidence  of  his  fellow  pupils 
and  of  the  teacher.  Reform  of  the  offender  thus  becomes 
one  of  the  ultimate  aims  of  all  punishment. 

Every  time  a  pupil  commits  an  offense  in  school,  his  little 
society  suffers  a  break  in  the  bonds  which  secure  to  it  all 
its  group  privileges.  Consequently,  punishment  becomes  a 
step  not  only  in  reestablishing  those  bonds,  but  in  making 
them  more  secure  against  a  similar  danger  in  the  futiu*e. 
Punishment  is  thus  used  as  a  means  of  publicly  condemning 
wrong,  and  of  warning  others  against  similar  offense. 

Fundamental  aims  in  pimishment.  There  are  thus  set 
up  three  fundamental  ends  to  be  achieved  through  the 
administration  of  punishment:  — 

1.  To  give  expression  to  society's  disapproval  of  wrong. 

2.  To  deter  others  from  committing  like  offense. 

3.  To  reform  the  offender. 

Retribution  not  an  aim.  This  purposely  omits  retribution 
as  an  end  of  punishment,  and  definitely  declares  against 
such  a  purpose,  and  that  for  two  reasons:  — 

1.  Society,  no  more  than  the  individual,  should  punish 
in  order  to  "get  even  '*  with  the  wrongdoer.  It  is  not 
**  getting  even,"  but  self-protection  that  society  wants. 
"  Getting  even  "  is  a  motive  in  fighting  or  quarreling,  but 
society,  the  school,  is  not  in  the  fighting  or  quarreling  business. 

2.  Reform  of  the  individual  cannot  be  wrought  by  such 
means.  Punishment  must  stimulate  the  offender  to  change 
his  ways.  If  the  school  merely  "  hits  back  "  the  offender 
is  left  in  a  resentful  instead  of  a  regretful  mood.  And  re- 
sentment is  not  the  beginning  of  reform. 


78  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

3.  Characteristics  of  effective  punishments 

Certainty  the  chief  deterrent.  A  good  punishment  is 
one  that  is  certain  to  come  when  deserved,  one  that  causes 
O  pain  without  serious  or  permanent  injury,  and  one  the 
meaning  of  which  the  child  fully  understands.  It  is  not  so 
much  the  severity  as  the  certainty  of  punishment  that  de- 
l  ters  children  from  doing  wrong.  It  is  obvious  to  every 
student  of  American  politics  that  the  greatest  weakness 
of  oiu*  municipal  governments  lies  in  the  fact  that  punish- 
ment for  wrongdoing  is  by  no  means  certain.  The  same 
principle  holds  true  in  the  school. 

It  is  human  nature  to  enjoy  taking  a  risk.  Every  boy 
worth  educating  loves  adventure.  But  when  punishment 
is  certain  the  element  of  risk  or  adventure  is  eliminated. 
There  is  no  longer  uncertainty  or  chance,  and  consequently 
no  sp)ecial  appeal  is  made  to  this  primitive  iostinct. 

It  must  be  painful.  Second  to  the  certainty  of  punish- 
ment is  the  discomfort  it  brings.  To  control  the  nature  and 
amount  of  pain  is  the  important  and  difficult  task.  The 
punishment  must  be  just  if  it  is  to  effect  reform.  Pain  may 
be  in  the  form  of  sorrow,  remorse,  or  chagrin,  or  it  may  be 
purely  physical.  It  will  certainly  be  different  with  differ- 
ent individuals,  and  must  be  administered  accordingly. 
That  the  pain  shall  be  mental  or  physical  or  both  is  not  the 
question  here.  There  must  be  real  hurt,  hurt  which  is 
genuinely  repulsive  to  the  offender.  How  great  the  hurt 
should  be  will  depend  upon  the  nature  of  the  offense;  how 
it  shall  be  produced  wiU  depend  upon  the  temperament 
of  the  offender. 

It  must  be  understood.    Finally,  a  pimishment  is  only 

effective  when  the  child  understands  fully  what  it  is  for, 

"*        and  why  he  must  accept  it.    That  means  that  he  must 

fully  appreciate  the  nature  and  extent  of  his  offense,  and 


SCHOOL  PUNISHMENTS  79 

the  relation  of  the  punishment  to  the  particular  offense 
committed.  That  is,  he  must  see  that  this  suffering  which 
he  is  to  undergo  is  a  reasonable,  and  as  nearly  as  possible, 
a  natural  consequence  of  his  deed.  Or,  putting  it  in  psy- 
chological terms,  he  must  form  a  mental  association  be- 
tween the  pain  and  the  misdeed  which  provoked  the  pain. 

4.  Kinds  of  jmnishments 

Punishments  have  been  enumerated  and  classified  often 
and  in  various  ways,  and  long  explanations  of  how,  when, 
and  where  they  are  to  be  applied  have  been  given.  Prac- 
tically all  agree  that  severe  types  of  punishment  should 
not  be  banished  from  the  list  of  available  penalties  for 
misconduct  in  the  elementary  school. 

This  book  is  attemptiiig  to  present  a  constructive  pro- 
gram, to  put  emphasis  upon  instruction  and  leadership  as 
opposed  to  coercion.  Yet  every  practical  schoolman  knows 
that  a  severe  shock  of  some  sort  is  frequently  necessary 
before  certain  children  will  accept  the  leadership  of  the 
teacher  and  enter  upon  a  cooperative  program  with  the 
school. 

What  kind  of  shock,  or  how  to  produce  it,  is  after  all 
not  an  easy  question  for  the  inexperienced  teacher  who 
is  confronted  with  the  practical  task  of  punishing  a  child. 
How  can  she  produce  the  results  characteristic  of  effec- 
tive punishments? 

Corporal  punishment.  Bodily  punishment  will  produce 
pain,  and  can  be  administered  soon  enough  after  the  of- 
fense so  that  association  between  the  misdeed  and  the  pain 
may  be  established.  It  should  be  used  only  in  extreme 
cases,  after  every  other  milder  method  has  failed  to  get 
results;  only  after  the  child  has  been  made  fully  conscious 
of  the  meaning  of  his  offense;  and  always  in  the  presence 
of  another  school  officer.  It  should  not  be  applied  in  pub' 


80  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

lie,  and  under  no  eireumstanees  should  a  ehild  be  shaken 
violently  or  struck  about  the  head. 

Corporal  punishment  is  not  only  wise  but  necessary 
under  certain  conditions.  A  child  whose  home  training 
has  been  coarse  and  brutal,  and  who  has  never  had  an 
opportunity  to  develop  respect  for  anything  except  physi- 
cal strength,  is  practically  incapacitated  for  imderstanding 
any  other  type  of  punishment  than  that  which  demon- 
strates the  teacher's  superior  physical  strength  and  her 
willingness  to  use  it  on  offenders.  Such  a  child  is  to  be  pit- 
ied, and  though  such  punishment  will  be  temporarily  nec- 
essary to  bring  him  within  the  reach  of  better  influences, 
yet,  as  rapidly  as  possible  it  should  be  dispensed  with,  and 
the  child  should  be  made  to  feel  himself  a  member  of  a 
group  which  is  bound  together  not  by  force  but  by  the 
spirit  of  cooperation  toward  the  common  good. 

Reproofs  and  rebukes.  Many  children  will  respond  very 
readily  to  a  sharp  reminder  that  what  they  are  doing  is 
wrong.  This  does  not  mean  that  scolding,  threatening, 
and  nagging  are  to  be  sanctioned.  Such  procedure  always 
brings  the  teacher-pupil  relationship  into  the  realm  of 
quarreling.  The  offense  and  the  punishment  then  become 
personal  matters  which  engender  bad  feehng  on  both  sides, 
and  stimulate  argument  on  the  part  of  the  pupil  instead 
of  submission  to  the  teacher's  wiU.  A  sharp  reproof,  brief 
and  to  the  point,  without  a  threat  of  further  pimishment 
"  if  it  happens  again,"  will  often  restore  the  unruly  child 
to  a  proper  attitude.  Reproof  or  rebuke  must  be  in  as  few 
words  as  possible  without  being  satirical  or  sarcastic.  It 
must  never  admit  of  a  reply,  and  must  be  fully  backed  up 
by  action  if  necessary. 

Other  punishments.  There  are  numerous  other  possible 
punishments  available  if  used  with  proper  discretion.  Cer^ 
tain  privileges  may  be  taken  away  from  children,  such  as 


SCHOOL  PUNISHMENTS  81 

acting  as  class  monitor,  leading  the  games,  etc.;  detention 
after  hours  or  at  recess  may  be  used,  if  care  is  exercised  in 
distinguishing  the  punishment  from  school  work,  so  that 
the  child  will  have  a  feeling  of  dislike  for  the  penalty  and 
not  for  the  school. 

Suspension  and  expulsion.  Suspension  and  expulsion 
must  always  be  available  as  final  modes  of  handhng  the 
confirmed  cases  which  will  not  submit  to  other  methods. 
They  should  not  be  trifled  with,  as  by  threatening  expul- 
sion, and  should  be  used  very  rarely. 

5.  The  administration  of  punishments 

Need  for  punishment  a  teaching  situation.  As  was 
pointed  out  in  the  chapter  on  order  and  discipline,  manag- 
ing children's  conduct  is  a  part  of  instruction.  The  object 
is  to  develop  types  of  behavior  which  are  best  adapted  to 
the  place  and  to  the  purpose  of  the  school.  This  may  be 
accomplished,  in  most  cases,  by  mere  suggestion  or  by 
imitation.  In  some  cases  definite  instruction  is  necessary; 
in  others  requests  that  such  instruction  be  applied.  In  a 
few  cases  it  will  be  necessary  to  command  observance  of 
such  conduct,  and  in  a  very  few  coercion  will  be  needed, 
and  we  meet  with  the  question  of  administering  that  co- 
ercion. 

-  The  point  to  be  emphasized  here  is  that  all  these  are 
cases  for  instruction.  They  are  different  in  a  few  respects, 
but  they  are  all  teaching-situations.  The  result  sought  in 
all  cases  is  regard  for  the  rights  of  others,  high  moral  ideals, 
and  right  habits  of  conduct.  The  unruly  child  may  not 
like  to  develop  the  habits  appropriate  to  school  life,  but 
when  occasion  demands  the  school  must  force  him  through 
the  essential  processes. 

This  point  of  view  with  respect  to  punishment  should 
help  to  reUeve  its  administration  of  some  of  its  disagree- 


82  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

able  features.  Punishing  a  child  should  be  looked  upon  as 
teaching  the  child,  and  the  method  of  punishment  should 
be  studied  in  exactly  the  same  sense  as  is  the  method  of 
teaching  arithmetic.  With  such  an  attitude  the  whole  pro- 
cedure is  viewed  objectively  by  the  teacher.  This  is  a  mat- 
ter of  first  importance,  as  it  ehminates  the  strictly  personal 
element,  and  so  prevents  anger,  or  any  other  emotional 
state,  from  interfering  with  the  process. 

Like  other  instruction  punishment  is  individualistic. 
Once  punishment  is  accepted  as  a  teaching  problem  its  in- 
dividualistic nature  is  more  easily  reahzed.  In  this,  as  in 
all  instructional  work,  individual  differences  play  a  large 
part  in  determining  the  method  to  be  pm-sued.  All  chil- 
dren should  know  how  to  use  good  English,  but  we  know 
that  exactly  the  same  methods  cannot  be  used  in  any  two 
cases.  Our  methods  always  vary  slightly  to  meet  individual 
needs.  Similarly,  if  two  boys  commit  the  same  offense  they 
must  both  be  corrected,  but  the  methods  to  be  used  will 
necessarily  vary  to  meet  the  particular  needs  of  each  case. 

This  principle  has  a  rather  wide  significance. 

1.  It  means  that  however  many  rules  of  behavior  the 
teacher  may  make,  she  cannot  assign  a  given  penalty  for 
any  particular  rule.  Suppose  a  rule  is  made  against  truancy, 
and  corporal  pimishment  is  assigned  as  the  penalty.  Now 
suppose  two  boys  break  this  rule,  one  because  he  is  a  con- 
firmed truant,  the  other  because  he  was  coaxed  and  bribed 
into  it.  Corporal  punishment  must  follow.  We  can  imagine 
the  following  results.  The  confirmed  truant  suffers  the 
punishment  without  a  whimper,  and  actually  in  glee  at  the 
privilege  of  showing  his  grit.  The  other  boy  is  humiliated 
to  the  extent  of  feeling  that  he  has  forever  lost  his  honor 
and  brought  shame  up>on  his  home.  Certainly  no  one  would 
say  that  corporal  punishment  here  has  fulfilled  the  require- 
ments for  effective  punishments. 


SCHOOL  PUNISHMENTS  83 

2.  Every  case  must  be  fully  diagnosed  before  a  penalty 
is  enforced.  It  would  be  little  short  of  crime  to  punish  a 
child,  such  as  truant  number  two  above,  with  corporal 
punishment,  while  for  a  boy  such  as  truant  number  one 
such  treatment  would  be  next  to  foUy  unless  it  could  be 
made  almost  brutal  in  its  nature.  Temperament,  mood, 
sex,  age,  size,  physical  and  mental  condition,  motive,  — 
all  represent  types  of  individual  differences  which  punish- 
ment cannot  wisely  ignore. 

Time  and  place  for  pimishment.  Where  and  when  pun- 
ishment should  be  administered  are  likewise  important 
questions.  No  child  should  be  seriously  punished  in  the 
presence  of  other  children,  and  that  for  two  reasons.  First, 
for  a  sensitive  child  it  is  extremely  degrading  to  be  so  hu- 
miliated in  the  presence  of  his  fellows,  and  leaves  him 
crushed  rather  than  punished;  or  if  he  be  of  the  brazen 
dare-devil  type,  then  it  is  just  his  chance  to  show  off.  In 
either  case  the  real  aim  is  defeated.  Secondly,  it  arouses 
sympathy  for  the  offender  which  he  does  not  merit,  ter- 
rifies the  younger  and  more  timid  pupils,  and  throws  the 
whole  room  into  a  state  of  excitement,  fear,  pity,  anger, 
and  resentment.  The  many  are  thus  made  to  suffer  for  the 
one. 

As  to  the  proper  time  for  punishment,  there  can  be  no 
set  rule  further  than  to  keep  in  mind  that  if  the  offense  is 
to  be  associated  with  the  pain  of  punishment  the  two  must 
be  as  closely  related  in  point  of  time  as  is  possible.  How 
close  this  may  be  will  depend  upon  the  nature  and  extent 
of  the  penalty  necessary.  A  penalty  may  often  consist  of 
two  parts,  —  anticipation  and  realization.  For  some  chil- 
dren an  afternoon's  dread  of  a  conference  with  the  teacher 
after  school  is  a  more  effective  treatment  than  is  the  con- 
ference itself.  In  such  a  case  pimishment  foUows  imme- 
diately after  the  offense,  and  continues  till  after  the  con- 


84  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

ference  is  concluded.  For  some  other  child,  however,  the 
afternoon  would  be  spent  in  preparing  plans  to  defeat  the 
purpose  of  the  conference,  or  in  gleefully  announcing  to 
the  boys  that  he  is  "  in  for  it  "  to-night.  In  such  a  case  the 
passing  of  time  will  certainly  weaken  the  effect  of  the  penalty. 
The  teacher's  responsibility.  One  other  caution  should 
be  added,  and  that  is  that  every  teacher  should  in  the  main 
rely  on  herself  to  do  the  pimishing  necessary  in  her  own 
room.  Sending  children  to  the  principal's  office  is  too  often 
a  mere  farce  in  school  practice.  A  good  principal  will  not 
permit  his  office  to  develop  into  a  mere  peace  officer's  job, 
and  will  not  be  slow  in  making  it  clear  that  teaching,  dis- 
cipline, and  punishment,  all  belong  to  the  same  program, 
and  that  the  teacher  cannot  easily  imload  the  disagreeable 
part  of  her  work  on  his  office.  But  even  from  the  teacher's 
point  of  view  very  few  cases  should  go  out  of  her  hands. 
To  use  this  method  often  amoimts  to  holding  the  princi- 
pal's office  over  the  children  as  a  constant  threat,  and  goes 
far  to  destroy  the  prestige  the  teacher  may  estabhsh  in 
other  lines. 

.  Finally,  the  teacher  should  depend  upon  leadership  as 
far  as  possible,  and  when  punishment  is  necessary  think  of 
it  as  a  suggestion  that  leadership  is  weak  at  some  point. 
She  should  remember  that  pimishment  must  be  instruc- 
tive as  well  as  corrective,  that  all  offenses  are  against  the 
school  and  not  against  the  teacher,  that  anger  will  destroy 
the  teacher's  power,  belittle  her  office,  and  produce  only 
resentment  in  the  offender.  She  should  also  remember  to 
be  deliberate  and  fully  self-possessed,  to  talk  Httle,  to  act 
promptly  where  action  is  necessary,  and  never  to  promise 
something  that  she  does  not  mean  to  carry  out.  Still  fur- 
ther should  she  be  cognizant  of  and  remember  that  an  im- 
portant measure  of  her  success  as  a  teacher  is  the  extent 
to  which  the  need  for  discipline  in  her  room  diminishes. 


SCHOOL  PUNISHMENTS  85 

6.  Chapter  summary 

In  bringing  together  the  chief  points  in  this  chapter  we  should 
keep  in  mind  first  of  all  that  some  occasion  for  punishment  is  almost 
certain  to  arise  in  every  class  room,  and  that  plans  for  dealing  with 
such  cases  cannot  be  wisely  ignored. 

Pimishment  must  mean  pain  to  the  oflFender,  and  must  be  admin- 
istered, not  as  an  expression  of  personal  resentment  on  the  part  of 
the  teacher,  but  as  an  expression  of  the  entire  school's  disapproval 
of  the  wrong  done.  Its  purpose  is  to  help  in  the  establishment 
of  this  conception  of  society's  rights  against  wrong  doers,  to  de- 
ter others  from  similar  acts,  and  to  reform  the  offender.  Its  aim 
is  never  retribution.  Neither  teacher  nor  school  can  ever  stoop  to 
mere  revenge. 

Punishment  is  effective  only  when  its  certainty  is  guaranteed  in 
advance,  when  it  causes  real  pain  and  regret,  and  when  it  is  fully 
understood.  (^Corporal  punishment,  when  used  with  discretion,  has 
proven  effective,  while  its  complete  abandonment  has  usually 
resulted  in  weakened  control)  Reproof  and  rebuke,  the  loss  of 
privilege,  and,  as  a  last  resort,  suspension  and  expulsion  are  useful 
means  of  curbing  unsocial  conduct. 

Finally,  punishment  must  be  looked  upon  as  a  part  of  instruc- 
tion. It  must  be  administered  in  a  like  spirit,  and  with  the  same 
regard  to  individual  differences  among  children,  and  when  severe, 
never  in  the  presence  of  other  children.  With  rare  exceptions  each 
teacher  should  control  her  own  class,  and  administer  the  necessary 
punishments,  never  forgetting  that  the  first  step  is  always  a  full 
and  complete  diagnosis  of  the  case  in  hand. 

REFERENCES  FOR  ADDITIONAL  READING 

Bagley,  W.  C,  School  Management,  chap.  vm. 
Spencer,  Herbert,  Edtication. 
White,  E.  K,  School  Management,  pp.  190-217. 
See  also  references  for  chapter  vn,  above. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Justify  the  statement  that  problems  of  punishment  are  merely  prob- 
lems of  instruction.  Why  should  a  teacher  never  permit  an  offense 
to  become  personal? 

2.  Take  a  common  school  offense,  such  as  quarreling,  and  show  what 


86  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

relationships  have  been  broken  by  it.  When  have  these  relationships 
been  restored? 

3.  Explain  and  justify  the  three  purposes  of  punishment,  as  set  forth  in 
this  chapter.  Why  is  retribution  not  a  reasonable  aim? 

4.  Explain  Herbert  Spencer's  theory  of  natural  punishments,  and  point 
out  their  strong  and  weak  points  for  school  use.  Cite  cases  in  which 
such  punishments  would  be  useful. 

5.  How  would  you  characterize  an  effective  punishment?  What  is  meant 
by  "the  child  must  fully  appreciate  the  meaning  of  the  punishment"? 

6.  Under  what  circiunstances  if  ever  is  corporal  punishment  justifiable? 
In  what  ways  does  it  fulfill  the  requirements  for  an  effective  punish- 
ment? Point  out  its  limitations. 

7.  Enumerate  a  list  of  punishments  which  you  think  could  be  used  to 
good  effect  in  school.  Make  a  second  list  you  think  of  rather  doubtful 
value,  or  to  be  used  only  under  peculiar  circumstances. 

8.  What  has  the  question  of  individual  differences  to  do  with  the  admin- 
istration of  punishments?  Why  is  it  dangerous  to  make  rules  in  school 
with  definite  penalties  assigned?  Would  you  make  rules  without  nam- 
ing the  penalties?  W^hy  should  the  penalty  be  administered  as  soon 
as  possible  after  the  offense?  What  is  included  in  the  diagnosis  of  an 
offense? 

9.  Describe  or  characterize  a  child  to  whom  you  would  never  administer 
corporal  punishment.  One  whom  you  would  not  rebuke  sharply.  For 
what  kind  of  child  is  mere  suggestion  adequate  punishment?  Reproof? 
Lowered  deportment?  When  should  suspension  and  expulsion  be 
resorted  to? 

10.  Of  what  kinds  of  privileges  would  you  deprive  children  by  way  of 
punishment?  Why  not  assign  tasks  as  punishment?  Why  should 
teachers  rarely  refer  cases  to  the  principal? 


CHAPTER  VIII 

INCENTIVES  IN  MANAGEMENT 

Outline  of  Chapteb 

1.  Meaning  of  the  term  —  Bridging  the  gap  —  The  disciplinary  conception  of  study  — > 
Interest  related  to  effort  —  The  practical  meaning  of  interest  —  Training  the  pupil  in  proper 
habits  —  The  teacher's  task. 

2.  What  makes  an  incentive  effective  —  Incentive  a  means,  not  an  end  —  Appeal  must  be 
immediate  —  Incentives  must  be  adapted  to  age  —  Appeal  must  be  positive  —  Use  nega- 
tive incentives  sparingly  —  Danger  in  competitive  prizes. 

3.  Types  of  incentives  —  Incentives  vary  with  age  and  individual  nature  —  (a)  Incen- 
tives more  or  less  incident  to  the  regular  organization  and  management  of  the  class:  (1) 
grading,  promotion,  and  class  marks;  (2)  monitorial  service;  (3)  holiday  programs;  (4)  school 
exhibits  —  (b)  Incentives  incident  to  good  teaching  method:  (1)  devices  as  incentives; 
(2)  tjrpes  of  devices  which  serve  as  incentives  —  (c)  Incentives  not  essentially  coimected 
with  the  regular  organization  or  management  of  the  school:  (1)  prizes;  (2)  honor  rolls; 
special  privileges  and  immunities,  class  rank,  and  public  commendation  —  (d)  Incentives 
based  upon  acquired  interests  and  ideals. 

4.  Summary  of  Part  II  —  References  —  Questions. 

1.  Meaning  of  the  term 

Bridging  the  gap.  Every  one  knows  that  managing  and 
teaching  children  are  simple  and  pleasant  tasks  when  the 
children  are  vitally  interested  in  the  essential  aims  of  the 
school.  But,  as  was  pointed  out  in  chapter  i,  some  of  these 
ends  may,  for  the  child,  seem  extremely  remote.  Remote 
in  the  sense  that  he  feels  no  interest  in  them  and  sees  no 
way  in  which  they  are  likely  to  profit  him  in  later  years. 
This  situation  is  to  a  certain  extent  imavoidable,  unless 
this  gap  between  the  child's  present  and  his  adult  future 
needs  can  somehow  be  bridged.  To  do  this  means  simply 
to  fill  it  in  with  something  that  has  a  present  meaning  and 
significance  for  the  child. 

The  younger  the  child  the  more  completely  is  he  occu- 
pied with  the  immediate  present.  The  world  is  all  new  to 
him,  and  wherever  he  goes  there  are  fresh  views  to  take  of 
things  at  hand.  It  is  largely  by  experience  and  training 
that  we  are  able  to  look  ahead  in  life,  and  the  child  is  so 


88  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

busy  getting  experience  that  he  feels  little  concern  about  the 
distant  time  when  he  may  need  this  or  that  information  or 
skill  which  the  school  proposes  to  give  him  so  far  in  advance. 

The  disciplinary  conception  of  study.  These  are  facts 
which  the  past  has  largely  ignored  on  the  assumption  that 
doing  disagreeable  tasks  under  compulsion  is  the  best 
means  of  getting  an  education.  Not  only  was  this  the 
assumption  of  our  Puritan  educators,  but  one  which  has 
fought  stubbornly  against  every  subsequent  proposal  to 
make  school  work  interesting.  Cons^uently,  even  after 
psychology  had  won  the  fight  for  "  interest  "  in  instruc- 
tion, the  ancient  school  traditions,  backed  up  by  theologi- 
cal prejudice  favoring  a  stern  suppression  of  every  activity 
in  any  way  productive  of  pleasiu-e,  prevented  any  attempt 
to  explain  away  the  artificial  barrier  which  centuries  had 
erected  between  interest  and  so-called  discipline.  This 
battle  has  only  recently  been  won  for  school  practice,  and 
the  meaning  of  the  term  incentive  will  become  clear  for  the 
teacher  only  when  she  imderstands  the  part  which  interest 
plays  in  education,  and  the  real  relation  of  interest  to  seri- 
ous effort. 

Interest  related  to  effort.  When  a  given  lesson  or  school 
task  is  attractive  to  the  child,  and  he  works  at  it  on  his  own 
initiative,  we  say  he  is  interested  in  it,  or  that  the  subject  is 
interesting  to  him;  when  the  task  is  unattractive  and  tends 
to  repel  him  we  say  the  task  is  iminteresting  to  him,  or 
that  he  is  not  interested  in  the  subject.  If  we  study  the 
behavior  of  the  child  under  these  two  sets  of  circumstances 
we  will  see  that  in  the  case  where  interest  is  present  the 
child  is  attentive  to  the  subject,  that  the  more  attractive 
the  task  the  more  concentrated  his  attention  becomes  and 
the  greater  becomes  his  effort.  In  the  case  where  interest 
is  not  present  we  see  the  child's  attention  constantly  flit- 
ting from  the  task;  he  is  easily  distracted,  and  assumes  about 


INCENTIVES  IN  MANAGEMENT  89 

the  attitude  of  a  careless  spectator.  Thus  we  are  easily  able 
to  distinguish  an  interesting  from  an  uninteresting  lesson, 
or  an  interested  from  an  uninterested  pupil.  And  we  are 
familiar  with  the  difference  between  the  amounts  of  work 
accomplished  imder  the  two  sets  of  conditions. 

The  practical  meaning  of  interest.  Now  why  are  some 
tasks  interesting  and  others  disagreeable  .^^  Interest  is  a 
comprehensive  term  which  includes  not  only  the  personal 
emotional  inclination  of  the  child  toward  a  lesson,  but  also 
the  objective  results  which  he  foresees  in  the  lesson  and 
wants  for  himself.  How  to  find  in  an  uninteresting  task 
something  which  the  child  recognizes  as  pertinent  to  his 
own  needs  is  the  question. 

First,  we  have  the  child,  always  with  a  capacity  for  hav- 
ing an  interest  in  things  which  really  concern  him;  second, 
we  have  the  school  aim,  the  lesson  to  be  learned.  The  child 
is  or  is  not  interested  according  as  the  lesson  does  or  does 
not  contain  something  which  he  recognizes  as  valuable  to 
himself.  If  he  is  not  interested  it  is  because  he  feels  no 
important  connection  between  his  own  self  and  what  the 
lesson  offers.  The  explanation  then,  of  why  some  tasks  are 
interesting  and  others  are  not  is  to  be  sought,  not  in  the 
nature  of  the  child  alone,  nor  in  the  nature  of  the  task  alone, 
but  rather  in  the  connection  between  the  two,  —  in  the 
actual  relation  of  what  the  child  now  knows  and  feels  and 
can  do  to  the  new  facts /or  skills  we  are  asking  him  to  ob- 
tain, to  the  new  appreciation  or  mental  processes  we  are 
asking  him  to  experience. 

Training  the  pupil  in  proper  habits.  Where  this  connec- 
tion is  close  there  is  no  problem  of  management.  The  child 
will  study  without  direction.  He  is  interested,  and  attends 
to  his  work  because  he  sees  where  to  begin.  But  where  this 
connection  is  not  close  the  child  is  not  interested,  and  then 
the  task  of  management  is  present. 


90  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

Three  possible  lines  of  procedure  are  open  to  the  teacher: 
first,  she  may  leave  the  child  alone  to  study  or  not,  as  he 
pleases;  second,  she  may  force  him  to  study  by  holding 
punishment  over  him;  third,  she  may  undertake  to  man- 
age him  with  respect  to  his  diflBculty.  The  last  is  her  plain 
duty.  To  leave  the  child  alone  is  to  waste  his  time  and  to 
force  him  to  adopt  the  trial  and  error  method,  from  which 
he  will  soon  turn  away  in  disgust.  If  driven  by  fear  of 
punishment  he  will  learn  to  despise  the  subject,  and  in 
time  the  school;  and  in  either  case  will  miss  his  opportunity 
to  develop  right  habits  of  work.  This  is  only  another  way 
of  saying  that  he  is  forced  to  develop  wrong  habits  of  work, 
by  which  the  school  defeats  its  own  end. 

The  teacher's  task.  How  to  provide  an  incentive,  how 
to  fill  this  gap,  how  to  find  some  facts  or  activities  akin  to 
what  he  now  knows  and  wishes  to  do,  is  the  question  for 
the  teacher. 

2.  What  makes  an  incentive  effective 

Incentive  a  means,  not  an  end.  Incentives  are  only 
means,  and  must  not  be  permitted  to  replace  the  ends 
which  they  are  designed  to  serve.  Young  children  admire 
bright  colors,  and  will  readily  attend  to  the  number  lesson 
if  permitted  to  use  brilliantly  colored  objects  to  coimt  with. 
The  question  is,  do  they  attend  to  bright  colors,  or  to  num- 
ber experience,  in  such  a  case?  The  end  sought  is  facility 
in  the  use  of  numbers,  the  means  or  incentive  is  bright- 
colored  objects  to  work  with.  Does  the  incentive  really  fill 
the  gap,  or  only  seem  to  fill  it?  Certainly  it  makes  a  vital 
appeal  to  very  genuine  instinctive  interests  in  the  child, 
and  makes  the  numbers  objective  and  concrete,  which 
means  to  make  them  real  to  the  child.  According  to  our 
definition  that  is  the  way  an  incentive  should  function. 

A  closer  examination,  however,  shows  that  something  has 


INCENTIVES  IN  MANAGEMENT  91 

been  overlooked.  Are  the  colored  balls  and  the  number 
experience  inseparable?  Must  the  child  get  the  one  if  he 
gets  the  other?  At  once  we  realize  that  it  is  possible  for  the 
child  to  make  coimting,  adding,  subtracting,  etc.,  a  mere 
incident  in  the  jolly  experience  of  rolling  bright  balls  or 
piling  up  colored  blocks.  So,  while  playing  with  colored 
balls  and  blocks  seems  on  the  face  of  things  to  serve  per- 
fectly as  an  incentive  for  studying  an  abstract  and  unin- 
teresting number  lesson,  we  see  that  it  is  very  easy  for  the 
means  to  be  converted  into  an  end,  the  real  end  being  re- 
garded by  the  child  as  a  mere  inconvenience  incident  to  the 
pleasant  game. 

Other  illustrations  could  be  given:  Mary  studies  very 
often  not  so  much  to  learn  as  to  win  a  prize;  James  takes 
pains  with  his  written  lesson,  not  to  improve  his  skill  in 
writing  and  correct  use  of  English  but  to  avoid  the  negative 
incentive  which  is  to  remain  after  school  and  do  his  work 
over.  So,  to  be  effective,  an  incentive  must  not  be  so  at- 
tractive in  itseK  as  to  dominate  the  situation  to  the  exclu- 
sion of  the  more  important  fact  of  the  relationship  which 
it  is  designed  to  establish  between  the  known  and  the  im- 
known,  between  the  child's  present  active  self  and  his  task. 
Neither  should  it  be  so  uninteresting  as  to  create  a  motive 
of  fear  or  dread. 

Appeal  must  be  immediate.  To  be  effective  an  incentive 
must  make  an  immediate  appeal.  That  means  that  it  must 
appeal  to  some  native  instinctive  interest,  or  be  so  inti- 
mately related  to  the  child's  present  purpose  that  it  tends 
to  illuminate  that  purpose.  An  extended  knowledge  of 
psychology  is  not  so  necessary  as  are  a  few  simple  obser- 
vations to  show  us  what  this  means  in  practice.  It  is  char- 
acteristic of  young  children  to  take  httle  thought  of  the 
morrow.  They  live  in  the  present,  and  an  ever  and  rapidly- 
changing  present.  Their  toys  are  attractive  for  only  a  short 


92  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

time  at  best.  Their  world  is  mainly  a  world  of  things,  while 
the  teacher's  world  is  quite  largely  a  world  of  ideas,  laws, 
and  relationships. 

It  is  only  because  the  teacher  has  had  a  long  experience 
with  things  that  she  is  now  able  to  deal  with  principles. 
Consequently  the  incentive  appropriate  to  early  school 
life  must  be  something  concrete  and  striking  from  a  sense 
standpoint,  something  which  at  once  affects  the  child*s 
narrow  personal  world  almost  in  spite  of  him.  The  yoimg 
child  loves  change  above  all  things.  His  life  is  dominated 
by  his  instinctive  liking  for  intensive  stimuli  of  all  kinds, 
for  play,  for  building  and  destroying,  and  he  is  extremely 
inquisitive  about  strange  and  wonderful  things  and  hap- 
penings. 

Incentives  must  be  adapted  to  age.  Incentives  which 
appeal  to  these  instinctive  tendencies  without  falling  into 
the  danger  of  replacing  the  real  end  sought  will  be  appro- 
priate for  early  childhood  and  for  older  children  who  are 
mentally  retarded.  With  more  advanced  children  these 
cruder  and  simpler  likes  do  not  fully  disappear,  but  others 
develop.  With  the  larger  mental  content  of  growing  years 
comes  also  an  increased  power  to  see  ahead,  to  see  relation- 
ships which  are  not  so  intimate,  greater  power  to  reason, 
all  of  which  means  ability  and  willingness  to  lay  aside 
an  immediate  for  a  future  good.  Incentives  may  then  be 
of  a  higher  order,  without  being  less  intimately  related  to 
the  child's  immediate  interests.  That  is,  the  appeal  is  now 
not  only  to  the  instinctive  but  also  to  the  acquired  inter- 
ests. The  number  experience,  at  first  gotten  in  connection 
with  games  and  play,  has  itself  become  an  interest  to  which 
we  can  appeal.  Thus,  as  soon  as  the  child  has  completed 
the  arithmetic  work  of  grade  four,  he  will  be  permitted 
to  apply  it  in  manual  training  and  shop  work  in  grade  five. 
This  privilege  becomes  a  real  incentive  to  the  child,  but 


INCENTIVES  IN  MANAGEMENT  93 

makes  its  appeal  not  only  to  his  original  primitive  instinc- 
tive interest  in  construction,  but  also  to  his  acquired  in- 
terest in  the  use  of  numbers. 

It  is  of  course  to  be  remembered  that  the  transition  from 
the  use  of  incentives  which  appeal  to  the  cruder  instincts 
to  those  which  appeal  to  later  instincts  and  to  acquired 
interests,  or,  as  we  may  say,  from  a  lower  to  a  higher  order 
of  incentives,  will  be  very  gradual.  The  higher  incentive 
must  bring  some  new  aspect  of  an  acquired  interest  into 
the  light  by  suggesting  an  imtried  value  for  it. 

Appeal  should  be  positive.  The  most  effective  incentives 
will  inspire  positive  rather  than  negative  attitudes  and 
activities.  There  are  two  possible  ways  of  bridging  the  gap 
between  the  child  and  his  uninteresting  task.  One  is  by 
compelling  him  to  accept  an  alternative  which  is  less  at- 
tractive, or  more  repulsive,  than  the  task  itself,  the  other  is 
by  providing  an  interesting  intermediary  experience  which 
leads  naturally  into  the  task  itself.  Both  will  be  effective  at 
times,  and  many  incentives  will  actually  contain  elements 
^^  of  each,  as  when  a  child  works  hard  both  to  win  a  prize  and 
for  fear  he  will  not  win  it. 

That  the  positive  is  the  more  important  element  should 
be  kept  in  mind:  — 

First,  because  common  experience  and  observation  teach 
us  that  when  we  work  from  fear  we  work  with  less  confi- 
dence in  our  own  ability,  and  that  we  go  grudgingly,  and 
with  much  less  energy. 

Second,  because  psychological  experiments  have  veri- 
fied these  common  observations,  and  state  their  conclu- 
sions by  saying  that  fear  tends  to  depress  and  choke  up 
our  channels  of  energy,  while  confidence  and  hope  in  our 
work  tend  to  brace  us  up  and  to  liberate  energy  for  the 
task  ahead. 

Third,  because,  with  a  negative  incentive  there  will  be 


94  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

a  tendency  for  a  child  to  form  a  mental  association,  not 
between  punishment  and  his  own  laziness  or  indifference, 
but  rather  between  punishment  and  the  lesson. 

Use  negative  incentives  sparingly.  Our  last  chapter  dealt 
with  punishments.  If  we  will  reconsider  that  chapter  from 
the  standpoint  of  this  discussion  we  will  have  before  us 
about  all  that  can  be  said  in  justification  of  negative  in- 
centives. They  cannot  be  fully  dispensed  with  in  school 
management,  except  in  rare  cases.  In  managing  instruc- 
tion though,  as  opposed  to  the  management  of  other  kinds 
of  behavior,  they  should  be  used  as  sparingly  as  possible. 
This  is  not  said  with  a  view  to  drawing  a  sharp  line  of  dis- 
tinction between  the  task  of  learning  to  play,  or  to  keep 
clean  hands  and  teeth,  or  to  be  polite,  on  the  one  hand,  and 
the  task  of  learning  an  arithmetic  lesson  on  the  other.  The 
two  are  psychologically  not  so  unlike  as  the  traditional 
schoolmaster  has  made  them.  The  one  is  a  little  more 
directly  social  in  its  bearing  on  the  child's  present  seK  than 
the  other,  but  they  are  both  learning  processes. 

Children  meet  with  disagreeable  tasks  on  the  playground, 
just  as  they  do  in  the  recitation-room.  The  only  reason  we 
fail  to  see  this  is  because  we  have  not  looked  upon  the  child's 
playground  experiences  as  part  of  his  constructive  program 
of  education.  When  we  have  developed  play  into  something 
real  and  vital  in  education,  then  the  need  for  a  study  of 
incentives  suitable  for  play  and  other  lines  of  social  and 
executive  training  will  appear. 

Danger  in  competitive  prizes.  Finally,  incentives  to  be 
effective  in  school  must  not  be  injurious  to  the  many  while 
they  serve  only  the  few.  It  is  a  poor  achievement  that  is 
better  measured  by  what  someone  else  has  not  done  than 
by  what  the  achievement  itself  represents.  A  child  is  not 
necessarily  good  or  bright  because  others  are  bad  or  dull. 
The  incentive  which  involves  competition  therefore  runs 


INCENTIVES  IN  MANAGEMENT  95 

the  risk  of  putting  emphasis  in  the  wrong  place,  and  may 
result  in  teaching  a  child  to  wish  ill  luck  to  his  fellows 
rather  than  to  strive  harder  to  win  for  himself. 

S.  Types  of  incentives 

Incentives  vary  with  age  and  individual  nature.  As  was 
pointed  out  above,  the  gap  which  an  incentive  is  to  bridge 
may  be  very  narrow  or  very  wide.  The  boy  who  is  well  up 
in  his  language  work,  but  who  is  not  fond  of  writing  themes, 
may  find  his  recent  first  experience  in  a  snow  storm  an 
incentive  amply  strong  enough  to  overcome  his  dislike  of 
writing.  Not  so,  however,  with  the  boy  who  not  only  does 
not  like  to  write  themes  but  who  has  been  scarcely  able  to 
keep  up  with  his  class.  The  one  knows  how  and  merely 
needs  something  interesting  to  write  about,  the  other  lacks 
basic  knowledge  and  skill.  The  incentive  in  one  case  has 
merely  to  overcome  a  little  mental  laziness,  while  in  the 
other  it  must  stimulate  the  child  to  seek  knowledge  as  well. 
Consequently,  when  we  speak  of  types  of  incentives,  we 
must  remember  that  we  are  dealing  only  with  general  prin- 
ciples, and  that  the  ultimate  test  of  the  value  of  an  incen- 
tive Hes  finally  in  its  actual  use. 

An  incentive  which  is  good,  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
general  principles  involved,  is  not  necessarily  good  every- 
where and  imder  all  circumstances.  Its  function  is  always 
specific  with  respect  both  to  the  individual  child,  and  to  the 
particular  circumstances  in  question.  The  following  classi- 
fication of  incentives  is  suggested  as  a  basis  for  a  critical 
examination  of  this  important  aspect  of  management. 

(a)  Incentives  more  or  less  incident  to  the  regular  organi- 
zation and  management  of  the  class.  There  are  certain 
features  of  school  procedure  which  are  indispensable  to  a 
proper  handling  of  children  in  groups,  many  of  which  can 
be  made  effective  incentives  for  practically  all  members  of 


96  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

the  class.  Such  are  grading,  promotion,  class  marks,  moni- 
tonal  services,  holiday  programs,  and  school  exhibits. 

Let  us  restate  in  brief  form  the  principles  set  forth  above, 
to  which  all  incentives  must  conform  in  order  to  be  effec- 
tive for  service:  — 

(1)  An  incentive  is  only  a  means  to  an  end,  and  so  must  not  be 
so  attractive  in  itself,  and  so  widely  separated  from  the  end 
it  is  meant  to  serve,  as  virtually  to  replace  that  end. 

(2)  Its  appeal  must  be  direct,  and  to  some  basic  instinctive 
interest,  or  to  some  present  and  pertinent  acquired  interest. 

(3)  It  must  as  often  as  possible  be  positive  rather  than  negative. 

(4)  It  must  not  be  injurious  to  other  children. 

With  these  criteria  in  mind,  let  us  examine  the  above 
features  of  the  regular  working  machinery  of  the  school 
to  see  how  they  may  be  turned  to  good  effect  in  this  con- 
nection. 

(l)  Grading,  promotion,  and  class  marks.  Perhaps  the 
greatest  evil  that  attends  the  use  of  grading  and  promotion 
as  school  incentives  is  that  they  too  often  become  ends  in 
themselves,  in  the  mind  of  both  teacher  and  pupil.  By  un- 
pedagogical  methods  the  teacher  fairly  drags  the  child 
through  the  required  amount  of  work  that  his  failure  may 
not  reflect  unfavorably  upon  her  own  eflficiency.  The  child 
fears  demotion,  or  being  left  behind;  or  craves  the  social 
distinction  of  skipping  a  grade;  and  so  in  desperation  mem- 
orizes but  does  not  digest  the  subject  matter  covered.  The 
appeal  is  to  the  emulative  and  social  instincts,  and  it  is 
direct.  This  is  well,  but  the  stimulus  often  is  negative 
rather  than  positive,  and  the  desire  of  the  child  too  fre- 
quently is  that,  if  he  fail,  his  friends  also  will  fail,  or  that 
if  he  is  permitted  to  skip  a  grade  certain  others  will 
not  be. 

This  does  not  mean  that  these  incentives  are  essentially 
bad,  but  rather  that  it  is  easy  to  put  the  emphasis  in  the 


INCENTIVES  IN  MANAGEMENT  97 

wrong  place,  and  so  to  destroy  what  might  be  a  wholesome 
stimulus. 

Competition  is  not  imwholesome  when  both  means  and 
end  are  legitimate.  Good  management  will  see  to  it  that 
the  real  end  —  work  done  —  is  attained,  and  further,  that 
the  child  shall  learn  to  compete,  not  only  with  others,  but 
with  his  own  past  record  as  well.  When  this  attitude  is 
established  the  value  of  grading  and  promotion  as  in- 
centives is  unquestioned. 

(2)  Monitorial  service.  The  necessary  monitors  for  the 
class  room  may  be  chosen  on  the  basis  of  merit  in  a  given 
study  one  week,  on  the  basis  of  entire  scholarship  standing 
another,  on  the  basis  of  deportment  or  application  another, 
etc.,  each  time  making  the  appointment  an  incentive  fo^ 
special  effort  at  some  particular  point.  Measured  in  terms 
of  the  above  principles  there  is  little  danger  of  abuse  of 
such  devices. 

(3)  Holiday  programs.  Certain  places  on  holiday  pro- 
grams can  be  made  open  on  condition  of  attainment  in 
various  lines  of  work,  preferably  those  most  nearly  asso- 
ciated with  the  material  which  the  program  is  to  present. 
Of  course  all  the  places  could  not  be  assigned  in  that  way 
for  there  will  be  certain  pupils  who  ought  under  any  cir- 
cumstances to  be  on  such  a  program,  and  certain  others 
for  whom  such  training  is  not  important. 

(4)  School  exhibits.  Occasional  displays  of  children's 
work,  either  in  competition  with  each  other  or  in  com- 
petition with  other  schools,  will,  like  interclass  and  inter- 
scholastic  games,  debates,  and  spelling  matches,  tend  not 
only  to  bring  out  the  very  best  individual  effort  but  to  de- 
velop a  sense  of  school  loyalty  as  well  which  is  thoroughly 
wholesome.  The  danger  here  is  that  the  single  item  for 
exhibition  may  receive  an  undue  amount  of  attention,  to 
the  detriment  of  regular  class  exercises  and  routine  matters 
which  are  of  greater  importance. 


98  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

Thus  practically  all  such  devices  as  these  must  constantly 
be  guarded  in  their  effect  upon  each  individual  child  if 
they  are  to  be  of  large  service.  They  have  the  advantage 
of  being  always  at  hand,  and  intimately  associated  with 
one  or  another  aspect  of  the  regular  life  of  the  school.  The 
teacher  who  is  ingenious  in  finding  out  ways  to  use  them, 
and  who  carefully  guards  against  their  abuse,  will  find 
incentives  of  this  type  valuable  soiu'ces  of  help.  \/ 

(b)  Incentives  incident  to  good  teaching  method.  A 
second  group  of  incentives,  which  are  perhaps  more  prop- 
erly thought  of  as  special  methods  and  devices,  should  at 
least  be  mentioned  here,  if  for  no  other  reason  than  to  show 
that,  like  incentives,  their  fimction  is  to  elicit  interest  in 
the  immediate  situation  and  to  bridge  over  the  gap  from 
the  known  to  the  unknown,  or  from  the  old  to  the  new. 

(1)  Devices  as  incentives.  It  was  pointed  out  above  that 
the  gap  to  be  filled  by  incentives  is  sometimes  very  wide, 
and  sometimes  very  narrow.  A  story  is  related,  a  picture 
is  displayed,  some  object  is  measured,  a  lesson  is  drama- 
tized, and  we  usually  think  of  these  as  teaching  devices  or 
as  features  of  the  special  methods  in  use.  Yet  their  fimc- 
tion is  to  sustain  and  direct  attention,  to  develop  an  in- 
terest in  the  end  sought,  which  is  the  fimction  performed 
by  incentives.  The  difference  is  that  in  the  one  case  the 
gap  is  narrow  in  both  point  of  time  and  in  knowledge  or 
skill  needed,  whereas  in  the  other  it  is  wider.  In  the  latter, 
attention  is  to  be  sustained  for  a  longer  time,  a  more  per- 
manent interest  is  to  be  developed,  more  work  is  to  be  done, 
This  is  but  a  difference  in  degree,  and  not  in  kind. 

If  a  device  is  a  feature  of  the  refined  details  of  teaching 
method,  then  an  incentive  is  a  feature  of  the  coarser  struc- 
ture of  method  in  the  large. 

(2)  Types  of  devices  which  serve  as  incentives.  Whether  we 
call  these  incentives,  or  devices,  or  special  methods,  is  not 


INCENTIVES  IN  MANAGEMENT  99 

important.  It  is  important  that  the  teacher  shall  make 
their  use  conform  to  the  principles  we  have  set  forth  for 
evaluating  incentives. 

The  use  of  pictures,  maps,  pets,  flowers,  field  trips,  dram- 
atization, xmderscoring  words  with  colored  chalk,  writing 
letters  to  children  in  foreign  countries,  and  others  of  this 
sort,  practically  without  end,  would  come  under  this  group. 
They  are  designed  for  use  in  particular  situations,  and  so 
are  highly  specialized.  Every  young  teacher  should  collect 
great  stores  of  such,  and  exercise  her  own  ingenuity  in 
working  out  new  and  original  ones.  To  become  versatile 
and  resourceful  in  the  use  and  invention  of  such  incentives 
should  be  a  constant  aim  of  every  teacher  who  wishes  to 
keep  out  of  pedagogical  ruts. 

(c)  Incentives  not  essentially  connected  with  the  regular 
organization  or  management  of  the  school.  In  this  group 
would  come  prizes,  honor  rolls,  special  privileges  and  im- 
munities, class  rank,  and  public  commendation,  all  of  which 
have  been  brought  into  use  in  the  school,  not  because  they 
are  in  any  way  essential  to  its  organization,  but  because  of 
the  strength  of  the  appeal  which  such  things  make.  Every 
normal  child  loves  a  tussle,  either  physical  or  intellectual. 
To  be  able  to  win  by  main  strength  or  by  wit  means  social 
prestige,  personal  power,  self-confidence,  and  success  to 
the  child.  The  big  question  before  all  such  incentives  is, 
are  they,  by  the  fact  of  their  lacking  any  real  connection 
with  the  life  of  the  school,  the  more  easily  separated  from 
the  end  which  they  are  designed  to  serve? 

(1)  Prizes.  There  are  almost  numberless  incentives  of 
this  class,  some  valuable  intrinsically,  and  others  which 
bring  some  special  distinction  only.  The  former  are  likely, 
indeed  will  almost  surely  become  ends  in  themselves,  and 
so  violate  our  principle  number  one.  The  latter  are  only 
slightly  less  likely  to  do  this,  and  both  will  have  the  fol- 


100  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

lowing  objections  in  common:  1,  the  number  of  contestants 
quickly  narrows  down  to  a  few  of  the  brightest  pupils  who 
are  least  likely  to  need  an  incentive,  all  others  becoming 
disinterested  spectators;  2,  certain  sensitive  pupils,  who  feel 
themselves  losing  in  a  desperate  attempt,  are  depressed  and 
disheartened,  and  lose  confidence  in  their  own  abilities; 
3,  the  winners  often  develop  an  over  confidence,  amounting 
to  offensive  and,  for  themselves,  dangerous  conceit;  4,  it 
tends  to  stratify  the  children  in  all  social  and  intellectual 
matters,  whereas  the  contest  may  involve  only  a  very  nar- 
row mental  trait,  such  as  spelling  ability.  So  there  is  scarcely 
a  point  in  our  principles  which  is  not  violated  by  the  use 
of  such  incentives. 

(2)  Honor  rolls,  special  privileges  and  immunities,  class 
rank,  and  public  commendation.  It  is  often  argued  that 
when  the  prize  is  available  for  aU  who  attain  a  certain 
standard,  then  most  of  its  evils  are  done  away  with.  This 
is  at  least  partly  true  of  the  use  of  honor  rolls,  etc.,  but 
there  are  certain  other  considerations  which  have  to  be 
watched.  As  an  incentive  for  regular  and  pimctual  atten- 
dance, a  monthly  half-holiday  is  often  granted,  and  the 
children  go  home  or  roam  the  street.  The  natural  inference 
which  the  child  draws  is  that  school  work  is  regarded  by 
all,  even  teachers,  as  hard  and  disagreeable,  and  that  this 
half -holiday  is  pay  for  having  patiently  endured  nineteen 
and  one  half  days  of  it.  If  this  half  day  were  devoted  sim- 
ply  to  a  different  line  of  work,  say  a  field  trip  to  a  factory^ 
a  shop,  a  park,  a  lake,  or  a  mountain  side,  in  which  the 
object  is  to  gather  material  for  Monday's  language  lesson, 
or  for  the  study  of  civics,  nature,  or  industry,  then  the 
prize  would  in  itself  become  a  very  legitimate  end,  and 
would  be  far  more  interesting  to  the  child  than  merely  go- 
ing home.  Furthermore  it  would  stimulate  interest  in  school 
work  instead  of  marking  it  as  drudgery. 


INCENTIVES  IN  MANAOEKEl^t  '        '    101 

So  much  depends  upon  how  all  kinds  of  prize  incentives 
are  used,  and  they  are  so  easily  possible  of  abuse,  that 
the  best  advice  regarding  them  seems  to  be:  1,  use  single 
prizes  of  intrinsic  worth  not  at  all;  2,  use  single  prizes 
which  mean  only  some  mark  of  distinction  rarely,  remem- 
bering that  the  spirit  of  rivalry  is  abundantly  stimulated 
on  the  playground,  and  in  debates;  and  3,  use  prizes  which 
are  open  to  all,  such  as  honor  rolls,  half -holidays,  freedom 
from  examinations,  etc.,  only  when  they  can  be  intimately 
bound  up  with  some  legitimate  phase  of  the  real  work  of 
the  school. 

(d)  Incentives  based  upon  acquired  interests  and  ideals. 
There  is,  finally,  another  group  of  incentives,  best  charac- 
terized, first,  by  the  fact  that  they  are  not  external  either 
to  the  school  as  an  institution  or  to  the  nature  of  the  child; 
and  second,  by  the  fact  that  they  have  to  be  developed. 
Such  are  love  of  knowledge;  pride  in  the  good  name  of  the 
school;  love  of  justice,  honor,  cleanliness,  fair  play,  prompt- 
ness, regularity,  and  cooperation;  and  an  earnest  desire 
to  be  worthy  of  the  friendship  of  teacher  and  fellow  pupils. 

We  are  not  born  with  these  high  ambitions  and  purposes, 
but  with  right  training  in  the  home  and  school  all  have 
capacity  for  developing  them.  Though  we  know  all  too 
little  about  the  psychology  of  ideals,  we  are  all  fairly  fa- 
miliar with  their  practical  working.  The  man  who  cannot 
be  bribed,  who  stands  by  his  duty  to  others  in  the  face  of 
personal  loss,  who  desires  power  that  he  may  render  serv- 
ice, is  the  man  who  is  living  up  to  his  ideals.  Such  incen- 
tives as  these  cannot  be  dragged  into  the  school  like  prizes, 
they  must  be  developed  by  example,  by  good  teaching,  and 
by  strong  personal  appeal.  They  are  means  and  end  all 
in  one. 

School  loyalty  is  not  made  up  of  hurrahs,  class  songs,  and 
yells,  and  other  superficial  signs  of  loyalty,  though  these 


102  '  '  * '   '  'ciIassroom  organization 

may  have  a  place  in  its  making.  There  must  be  behind 
these  a  cx)mmon  aspiration,  a  common  life,  shot  through 
with  habits  of  cooperation,  of  fair  play,  of  justice,  of  hard 
work  and  clean  living.  So  it  is  with  love  of  knowledge,  and 
other  high  ideals.  They  are  powerful  as  motivating  forces, 
once  they  are  firmly  established  in  our  conduct  as  well  as 
in  our  beliefs. 

There  is  no  lesson  so  dull  that  an  incentive  cannot  be 
found  which  will  make  it  interesting  to  the  normal  pupil. 
Sweeping  out  the  office  is  uninteresting  to  the  boy  passing 
by,  but  not  so  to  the  boy  inside  who  looks  upon  his  work 
as  the  beginning  of  a  professional  career.  It  is  the  teacher's 
business  to  help  her  indifferent  pupils  to  the  office  boy's 
point  of  view.  This  she  can  do  if  she  is  resourceful,  and 
constantly  on  the  alert  for  new  motivating  material. 

-4.   Summary  of  Part  II 

In  Part  I  we  set  forth  the  ends  which  are  to  be  sought  in  the 
child's  training,  showed  how  these  ends  function  in  managing  the 
school,  and  described  the  materials  with  which  the  teacher  has  to 
deal.  In  this  Part  we  have  discussed  the  pupil  as  the  object  of  all 
management,  explaining  how  he  is  to  be  brought  into  an  under- 
standing of  his  place  as  a  member  of  the  school  group,  the  problem 
of  attendance,  order  and  discipline,  school  punishments,  and  in- 
centives in  management. 

Upon  entering  the  school  the  child's  first  problem  is  that  of 
becoming  oriented  with  respect  to  his  duties  and  privileges  as  a 
member  of  a  new  social  body.  The  teacher's  problem  is  that  of 
assisting  him  in  making  the  right  contacts  with  this  institution. 

The  question  of  attendance  thus  becomes  of  very  first  impor- 
tance, and  that  not  to  the  pupil  alone,  but  to  the  school  and  to  the 
State  as  well.  As  a  management  problem  it  usually  presents  itself 
in  the  form  of  truancy,  irregularity,  or  tardiness,  and  each  case 
demands  individual  treatment,  for  the  reason  that  its  causes  lie 
within  the  numerous  influences  under  which  the  child  lives  and 
works.  The  teacher  is  especially  advised  to  look  closely  into  the 
child's  school  relationships  as  a  possible  source  of  the  trouble. 

The  second  problem  was  that  of  order  and  discipline.  Discipline 


INCENTIVES  IN  MANAGEMENT  103 

here  was  thought  of  as  those  modes  of  conduct  which  are  peculiarly 
appropriate  to  school  life,  and  the  teacher's  problem  as  that  of 
determining  the  most  suitable  practices,  and  then  of  applying  to 
those  practices  the  common  principles  of  politeness,  honor,  and 
integrity  which  prevail  everywhere.  For  the  teacher  it  is  a  problem 
of  developing  within  herself  the  power  to  lead,  and  her  study  is 
always  of  how  to  apply  that  power  to  individual  cases. 

The  third  problem,  that  of  punishments,  brings  the  pupil  into 
his  most  critical  relationships  with  his  social  group,  and  the  teacher 
into  her  most  critical  teaching  relationship  with  the  child.  Pun- 
ishment must  mean  pain  to  the  offender,  and  must  result  in  his 
realization  of  a  broken  relationship  with  his  school,  and  that  the 
responsibility  is  his  very  own.  The  offender  must  be  made  to  feel 
the  power  of  public  indignation  at  his  wrong  if  his  punishment  is 
to  weigh  heavily  with  him.  This  the  teacher's  leadership  must 
provide  for,  all  cases  being  treated  impersonally  and  in  terms  of 
their  individual  merits. 

Finally,  we  have  discussed  the  difficult  but  important  question 
of  incentives.  What  an  incentive  is,  what  makes  it  effective,  and 
the  different  types  of  incentives  that  are  possible  of  use  in  the 
school.  One's  incentives  for  doing  a  thing  are  his  reasons  or  mo- 
tives for  doing  it.  Where,  as  is  necessarily  the  case  in  many  in- 
stances in  the  school,  the  task  is  not  closely  related  to  the  child's 
present  interests,  it  is  necessary  to  bridge  the  gap  between  them. 
This  is  the  most  vital  point  in  the  entire  teaching  process.  To  be 
able  to  select  facts,  incidents,  and  exercises  that  will  serve  as  a 
means  to  this  end  is  the  teacher's  problem.  This  requires  intimate 
knowledge  of  the  child  and  of  the  task,  and  skill  in  manipulating 
the  incentive  in  terms  of  the  child's  peculiar  needs. 

We  have  grouped  incentives  as  those  incident  to  school  organi- 
zation and  management,  those  incident  to  good  teaching  method, 
those  not  essentially  connected  with  school  work,  and  those  based 
on  acquired  interests  and  ideals. 

In  these  chapters  the  reader  should  have  come  to  realize  that 
the  child  is  the  center  of  all  our  interest  as  we  develop  machinery 
for  dealing  with  children  in  large  groups.  Children  are  widely 
different  from  each  other  in  their  power  to  learn,  and  the  test  we 
set  for  ourselves  in  the  remaining  portion  of  this  book  is,  —  can 
the  machinery  of  school  management  be  so  constructed  that  it 
will  recognize  and  make  full  use  of  this  wide  diversity  in  human 
nature  while  adjusting  itself  to  the  welfare  of  the  group? 


104  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 


REFERENCES  FOR  ADDITIONAL  READING 

Bagley,  W.  C,  Classroom  Management,  chaps,  xi,  xn. 
Dewey,  J.,  Democracy  and  Education,  chap.  x. 

Excellent  as  a  brief  statement  of  the  underlying  principles  for  this  chapter. 
Dutton,  S.  T.,  School  Management,  chap.  in. 
White,  E.  E.,  School  Management,  pp.  130-189. 
Wilson,  H.  B.,  and  G.  M.,  Motivation  of  School  Work,  Ptot  I. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  What  is  meant  by  the  term  incentive,  and  why  are  incentives  needed 
in  school  work? 

2.  Explain  how  the  study  of  incentives  comes  to  be  a  study  of  the 
psychology  of  interest  and  attention.  Why  do  we  call  one  task  inter- 
esting and  another  not  interesting.?  Does  the  effort  which  you  or 
yom*  pupils  put  forth  because  of  interest  in  a  task  seem  to  you  to 
have  the  same,  greater,  or  less  disciplinary  or  educative  value  than 
the  effort  which  is  put  forth  under  some  penalty  or  disagreeable  cir- 
cumstance? Cite  cases  to  illustrate. 

3.  Why  is  it  that  a  given  incentive  may  be  effective  with  a  child  one  day 
and  not  the  next,  or  with  one  child  and  not  with  another?  Does  this 
answer  explain  why  a  successful  use  of  incentives  in  the  school  in- 
volves careful  judgment  and  skill  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  as  well 
as  a  knowledge  of  the  object  or  activity  used  as  the  incentive? 

4.  Can  you  recall  a  case  of  where  an  incentive  failed  because  the  pupils 
treated  it  as  an  end  instead  of  a  means? 

5.  State  the  four  principles  to  which  an  incentive  must  conform  if  it  is 
to  be  effective. 

6.  What  is  the  difference  between  an  incentive  and  a  device?  Explain 
how  they  are  alike. 

7.  What  is  meant  by  a  negative  incentive,  and  what  is  the  most  serious 
objection  to  its  use?  Under  what  circumstances  are  negative  incen- 
tives justified?  Give  illustrations  of  where  they  would  be  effective, 
and  also  of  where  they  would  be  ineffective. 

8.  Suggest  an  incentive  that  would  be  useful  to  one  pupil,  but  detri- 
mental to  others. 

9.  Make  up  as  long  a  list  of  incentives  as  you  can  for  each  of  the  four 
general  types  mentioned  above. 

10.  Show  how  the  following  incentives  may  be  made  effective:  —  promo- 
tions, prizes,  class  monitors,  school  exhibits,  field  trips,  pictures  and 
railroad  maps,  freedom  from  examinations,  love  of  truth,  school  loy- 
alty, love  of  knowledge. 

11.  Take  the  same  list  and  explain  how  each  may  fail  of  its  purpose, 
stating  its  failure  in  terms  of  the  four  guiding  principles  laid  down. 


INCENTIVES  IN  MANAGEMENT  105 

12.  When  may  an  incentive  be  used  legitimately  as  both  means  and  end? 
Explain  a  case  that  could  be  worked  out  by  the  teacher. 

13.  Why  is  fear  of  having  to  copy  a  list  of  words,  commit  something  to 
memory,  or  remain  after  school  for  study,  almost  invariably  a  wrong 
incentive? 

14.  Is  an  incentive  something  that  is  supposed  to  replace  teachmg  effort, 
or  is  it  merely  a  part  of  an  effective  teaching  process?  Explain. 


PART  III 
THE  MACHINERY  AND  THE  PROCESS 


CHAPTER  IX 

ORGANIZING  THE  SCHOOL 

Outline  of  Chapteb 

1.  The  problem  of  Part  HI. 

2.  The  nature  and  purpose  of  organization  —  Division  of  labor  a  necessity  —  Organiza^ 
tion  means  systematization  and  economy  —  Organization  as  means  and  as  end. 

3.  Plans  for  the  first  day  —  Importance  of  first  day  —  Getting  oriented  —  Putting  the 
schoolroom  in  order  —  The  teacher  an  example  in  promptness  —  Starting  and  organizing 
the  school  —  Advance  planning  makes  all  organizing  easier. 

4.  Mechanical  features  of  the  organization  —  Routine  procedure  —  Entering  and  leav- 
ing the  building  —  The  fire  drill  —  Handling  wraps  —  Distributing  and  collecting  papers, 
pens,  etc.  —  Leaving  the  room  —  Keeping  desks  and  room  orderly  —  Personal  cleanliness 
—  The  daily  program  and  other  details  —  The  necessary  signals, 

6.  Summary  —  References  —  Questions. 

1.  The 'problem  of  PaH  in 

Thus  far  we  have  thought  almost  exclusively  from 
the  point  of  view  of  the  individual  child,  keeping  the  group 
aspect  and  the  machinery  of  the  school  somewhat  in  the 
background.  This  has  been  done  in  order  that,  first  of  all, 
we  may  have  fully  established  the  idea  that  the  school  is 
made  up  of  children,  and  that  the  ultimate  test  of  the 
school  and  of  its  management  is  what  they  can  do  for  the 
individual  child.  We  have  not,  however,  ignored  the  fact 
that  the  child's  world  is  social,  as  well  as  intellectual  and 
physical,  and  that  his  training  is  to  take  place  very  largely 
in  a  group,  and  that  it  is  always  training  for  group  life.  In 
chapter  five  we  attempted  to  show  something  of  what  this 
group  life  in  the  school  may  mean  to  the  child,  if  he  is  prop- 
erly managed  with  respect  to  the  social  aspects  of  the  in- 
stitution of  which  he  becomes  a  part. 

In  this  section  of  the  book  it  will  be  our  purpose,  not  to 
lose  sight  of  this  viewpoint,  but  to  examine  the  machinery 
essential  to  the  management  of  children  in  groups,  and  to 


110  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

study  the  processes  by  means  of  which  this  machinery  may 
be  made  effective  as  a  means  for  achieving  the  principal 
aims  of  the  school.  The  organization  of  the  physical  fea- 
tures of  the  school;  the  organization  of  the  children,  of  the 
curriculum,  and  of  the  day's  work;  the  planning  and  di- 
recting of  the  efforts  of  the  group  at  study  and  in  recita- 
tion; the  checking  up  of  results  by  group  tests;  and  the 
changing  and  shifting  of  machinery  to  meet  the  constantly 
expanding  needs  of  the  children  and  the  commimity, — 
these  will  constitute  our  problem  here.  In  this  we  shall 
combine  the  study  of  the  bare  structure,  the  fixed  and  static 
features  of  the  school,  with  a  study  of  those  flexible  and 
dynamic  features  which  are  essential  to  the  proper  func- 
tioning of  the  structural  parts.  Thus  we  shall  avoid  the 
necessity  for  studying  the  machinery  of  the  school  aside 
from  the  part  it  plays  in  making  for  economy  and  effec- 
tiveness in  the  group  enterprise. 

2.  The  nature  and  purpose  of  organization 

Division  of  labor  a  necessity.  Education  has  become  one 
of  our  most  popular  enterprises,  and  with  this  increase  in 
its  popularity  has  necessarily  gone  a  great  increase  in  the 
diversity  of  its  interests.  Hence  the  school  problem  has 
become  rapidly  more  diflBcult,  both  from  the  standpoint  of 
numbers  and  from  the  standpoint  of  aim.  The  school  is 
no  longer  a  mere  matter  of  teacher  and  pupil,  it  is  a  whole 
State  and  its  children  trying  to  conserve  the  best  ideals  of 
the  past  and  to  anticipate  the  endless  variety  of  occupa- 
tional, social,  and  cultural  needs  of  the  future. 

The  principle  of  division  of  labor  has  therefore  become  a 
pressing  one,  and  the  school  organization  of  a  decade  ago 
finds  itself  ill  adjusted  to  the  school  problems  of  to-day. 
The  State,  the  county,  the  city,  and  the  district  oflBcials 
unite  to  form  a  vast  machine  for  handling  this  problem  in 


ORGANIZING  THE  SCHOOL  111 

the  large,  and  it  is  within  this  larger  system  that  each 
teacher  is  to  operate,  not  as  a  mere  cog  in  a  wheel,  but  as 
an  inteUigent  personaHty,  responsible  for  the  solution  of 
certain  details  in  the  greater  problem.  Its  purpose  is  only 
to  systematize  and  to  divide  responsibility,  to  the  end  that 
such  specialization  may  result  in  efficiency.  The  teacher 
needs  this  larger  perspective  for  her  work  in  order  that  she 
may  be  the  better  able  to  define  her  own  immediate  aims 
and  to  relate  means  to  ends  in  attaining  them. 

Organization  means  systematization  and  economy.  Or- 
ganization then,  for  the  teacher  is,  as  it  is  for  the  State, 
a  matter  of  systematizing  the  work  to  be  done.  There  is 
the  building,  and  her  room,  with  their  particular  plans  of 
entrance  and  exit,  with  their  cloak-rooms,  halls,  windows 
and  furniture,  aU  more  or  less  fixed  and  unchangeable 
features  to  which  her  plans  have  to  be  adjusted.  Then 
there  are  books,  pencils,  wraps,  etc.,  to  be  distributed  and 
put  away  again;  there  are  children  to  be  classified,  to  be 
moved  into  and  out  of  the  building,  and  to  the  blackboard, 
many  times  every  day;  there  is  the  division  of  subject- 
matter,  the  arrangements  for  study  and  for  recitation,  all 
of  which  have  to  be  dealt  with,  by  the  very  fact  that  one 
teacher  is  trying  to  teach  many  children  many  things  in 
many  ways,  all  in  the  same  day.  To  reduce  all  this  to  order 
means  to  bring  each  of  these  factors  into  a  proper  relation- 
ship to  aU  others. 

Organization  as  means  and  as  end.  Good  organization 
must  serve  both  as  a  means  and  as  an  end.  It  wiU  not  only 
facilitate  study  and  recitation,  but  it  will  establish  habits 
of  economy  in  respect  to  the  use  of  time,  furnish  useful 
drill  in  cooperative  movements,  and  in  all  give  excellent 
training  along  executive  lines.  The  boy  who  has  learned 
how  to  keep  his  place  in  line,  how  to  arrange  and  distribute 
materials  with  dispatch,  how  to  put  his  own  desk  in  order, 


112  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

has  learned  something  that  will  be  useful  to  him  outside 
of  school.  In  such  cases  it  is  not  a  matter  of  imposing  a 
system  upon  the  school,  but  rather  of  reducing  the  normal 
procedure  of  the  school  to  a  system. 

Not  all  organization,  however,  will  thus  reduce  itself  to 
a  mere  mechanism.  Some  plans  are  for  activities  which 
nm  through  the  whole  term  without  change  and  will  quickly 
reduce  themselves  to  habits,  while  others  have  to  do  with 
activities  which  are  not  often  repeated,  or  which  are  for 
individual  rather  than  for  group  guidance.  These  will  have 
to  be  made  anew  for  each  occasion,  and  followed  out  con- 
sciously rather  than  mechanically.  These  latter  have  to 
do  more  especially  with  the  handling  of  the  study  and 
recitation  of  lessons,  while  the  former  will  have  to  do  almost 
exclusively  with  the  movements  of  the  children  and  the 
handling  of  equipment. 

3.  Plans  for  the  first  day 

Importance  of  first  day.  To  bring  this  conception  of 
organization  to  bear  in  the  teacher's  preparation  for  her 
first  day's  work  is  very  important.  First  impressions  are 
lasting  ones,  and  the  teacher  should  make  that  day  stand 
out  as  one  with  a  clear-cut  program  of  orderly  and  effective 
work.  Instead  of  being  given  over  to  leisurely  registration 
of  pupils  and  assignments  of  lessons,  it  should  be  the  first 
day  of  regular  work,  as  nearly  as  possible  under  the  condi- 
tions that  wiQ  prevail  throughout  the  year.  This  means 
that  the  teacher  must  be  prepared  with  very  specific  plans 
covering  every  feature  of  the  day's  program. 

Getting  oriented.  Such  plans  begin  with  her  own  work 
in  its  relations  to  the  school,  or  even  to  the  city  or  coimty 
as  a  whole.  What  is  the  larger  educational  problem  of  the 
commimity?  What  is  the  general  policy,  and  who  is  re- 
sponsible for  making  that  policy?  To  answer  this  she  should 


ORGANIZING  THE  SCHOOL  113 

obtain  recent  copies  of  annual  reports,  bulletins,  circulars, 
courses  of  study,  and  syllabi,  if  any  such  have  been  pub- 
lished, and  look  them  over.  If  there  are  no  such  publica- 
tions, then  a  personal  conference  with  her  principal,  super- 
visor, or  city  or  county  superintendent  will  be  desirable, 
in  order  to  talk  over  in  advance  the  general  plans  for  the 
year's  work.  Early  teachers'  meetings  and  the  principal's 
bulletin  board  will  clear  up  the  problems  common  to  all 
teachers  in  the  building. 

The  teacher's  own  preliminary  arrangements  will  call 
for  a  visit  to  her  building  and  room,  where  she  will  familiar- 
ize herself  with  the  plans  of  entrance  and  exit  for  the  chil- 
dren; with  where  the  wraps  are  to  be  placed;  with  how  to 
regulate  the  ventilation  and  light;  with  the  arrangement 
of  desks  and  blackboard,  the  location  of  drinking  fountains, 
lavatories,  and  toilets;  with  the  facilities  indoors  and  out 
for  play  activities;  with  the  library;  and  with  the  location 
of  maps,  charts,  pictures,  chalk,  pencils,  paper,  etc.  She 
will  find  the  last  year's  register,  with  some  information 
about  the  children  and  their  work;  and  perhaps  a  well- 
marked  copy  of  the  course  of  study.  Nor  will  she  forget  to 
leave  such  information  for  her  successor  when  she  moves 
to  another  room  or  position. 

Putting  the  schoolroom  in  order.  Preparatory  to  begin- 
ning her  work  the  teacher  will  see  that  her  room  is  in  order. 
This  means  a  great  deal,  again  partly  because  of  the  in- 
fluence of  first  impressions.  The  room  should  be  clean,  the 
blackboards  and  chalk  trays  ready  for  use,  supplies  of  pen- 
cils, pens,  and  paper  should  be  on  her  desk,  and  the  place 
should  look  inviting.  The  room  should  be  Hght  and  airy, 
the  pictures  should  be  properly  hung,  and  the  bookcases, 
tables,  and  chairs  should  look  neat  and  orderly. 

The  room  should  also  be  made  to  look  like  a  place  for 
work.    If  in  a  on^-room  school,  or  a  school  with  several 


114  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

grades,  the  blackboards  may  well  contain  questions,  prob- 
lems, and  assignments,  for  various  classes.  Books  should 
be  in  evidence,  and  a  daily  program  (tentative  perhaps) 
should  be  ready  to  point  the  way  through  the  day's  work 
for  each  class. 

The  teacher  an  example  in  promptness.  When  the  first 
day  arrives  the  teacher  should  be  in  her  room  early.  She 
should  call  at  the  principal's  office  for  a  moment,  not  to 
visit,  but  to  receive  any  final  instructions  regarding  the 
plans  for  the  day,  or  to  ask  any  necessary  questions.  She 
should  greet  any  of  the  other  teachers  she  meets,  and  then 
go  to  her  room  to  be  ready  to  meet  the  children  as  they 
arrive.  She  has  already  arranged  her  room,  and  so  on  this 
morning  has  merely  a  few  details  to  look  after.  The  few 
should  not  prevent  her  from  meeting  her  pupils  and  an- 
swering their  questions  as  they  enter,  aU  anxious  to  see  the 
new  teacher. 

Starting  and  organizing  the  school.  When  the  gong  or 
bell  caUs  the  children  in  she  should  know  precisely  how 
they  are  to  enter.  She  should  know  where  she  is  to  be,  just 
where  her  class  will  form  into  line,  and  just  how  they  will 
enter  her  room.  She  should  know  exactly  how  the  wraps 
are  to  be  disposed  of,  and  what  she  is  going  to  say  and  do 
"  next."  If  these  plans  have  all  been  carefully  worked  out 
beforehand,  they  should  go  through  perfectly.  The  open- 
ing speech  should  not  be  long.  A  very  few  remarks,  not 
about  what  "  you  must  or  must  not  do,"  but  about  what 
"  we  are  going  to  do  "  this  very  day.  While  talking  the 
teacher  should  also  be  working,  handing  to  the  children  in 
front  slips  of  paper  and  pencils  to  be  distributed  to  those 
in  the  seats  behind  them.  Soon  all  are  busy  writing  what 
she  has  asked  for:  name,  age,  grade,  name  and  address  of 
parents,  and  any  other  information  necessary  for  the  sys- 
tem of  individual  records  which  she  will  prepare  for  the 
principal's  office. 


1 


ORGANIZING  THE  SCHOOL  115 

These  slips  are  collected  by  the  same  monitors.  The 
teacher  now  unrolls  the  daily  program  and  hangs  it  up 
where  all  can  see,  while  the  monitors  pass  out  the  books  or 
other  articles  next  needed.  Things  are  so  well  planned  and 
so  quickly  and  simply  explained  that  these  new  monitors 
are  catching  the  spirit  of  this  very  quiet  but  very  business- 
hke  teacher,  and  are  passing  it  on  to  other  children,  who 
are  busy  following  directions.  The  first  section  of  the  pro- 
gram is  explained,  assignments  are  made,  and  soon  one 
group  is  busy  preparing  a  lesson,  and  another  with  the 
teacher  at  the  board,  perhaps,  with  some  work  she  placed 
there  the  day  before.  Somehow  it  is  only  about  nine 
thirty  o'clock,  and  all  are  at  work.  The  opening  speech 
is  past  and  the  school  is  actually  running. 

Advance  planning  makes  all  organization  easier.  It  is 
easier  to  give  these  instructions  than  it  is  to  carry  them  out, 
but  here  they  are,  without  the  thousand  details  and  inter- 
ruptions which  the  teacher  will  have  to  meet,  and  the  only 
other  suggestion  is  that  no  teacher  will  ever  open  her  school 
in  such  an  ideal  way  who  has  not  learned  two  important 
lessons :  —  first,  how  to  plan  her  work  so  that  she  will  know 
exactly  what  she  is  going  to  do;  and  second,  how  to  make 
every  moment  of  her  time  count.  If  these  lessons  have  been 
well  learned  the  children  will  return  to  their  homes  at  night 
with  a  definite  idea  of  what  they  have  done  and  of  what 
they  are  to  do  the  next  day,  and  also  with  the  right  kind  of 
fireside  report  about  the  new  teacher. 

^.  Mechanical  features  of  the  organization 

Routine  procedure.  Certain  parts  of  the  organization 
must  be  reduced  to  habit  as  soon  as  possible,  both  because 
a  thing  done  by  habit  will  be  done  in  the  same  way  each 
time,  and  because  it  will  be  done  more  speedily.  Such  rou- 
tine procedure  has  sometimes  been  looked  upon  as  being 


lie  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

suppressive  of  individual  initiative.  It  would,  of  course, 
be  possible  to  carry  it  to  such  an  extreme  as  effectively  to 
prevent  children  from  thinking  for  themselves.  It  is  not 
miUtarism,  or  blind  obedience,  that  is  wanted  in  the  school, 
except  in  a  few  places  where  blind  obedience  can  render  the 
best  sort  of  service  to  the  individual  as  well  as  to  the  group. 
Most  of  the  routine  proposed  here  will  be  of  such  a  char- 
acter as  to  recommend  it,  both  for  its  educative  value  to  the 
individual  and  for  its  value  in  facilitating  the  movements 
and  work  of  the  group. 

The  psychology  of  habit  formation  demands:  first,  strict 
and  fuU  attention  to  the  activity  that  is  to  be  reduced  to 
habit;  and  second,  continuous  drill  which  allows  no  devia- 
tion from  the  original  mode  of  procedure.  This  law  is  an- 
other excellent  reason  why  certain  of  the  teacher's  plans 
should  be  fully  worked  out  and  carefully  executed  the  first 
day.  If  it  is  decided  to  have  children  march  in  to  music, 
then  the  sooner  this  plan  is  initiated  the  better  it  will  be 
for  the  habit  that  is  to  be  formed. 

Entering  and  leaving  the  building.  This  will  be  a  simple 
or  a  complex  matter,  accordingly  as  it  is  a  building  of  one 
or  of  many  rooms  or  stories.  In  any  case,  marching  in  will 
serve  as  an  excellent  opportunity  for  teaching  children  how 
to  walk,  and  how  to  cooperate  in  filling  or  emptying  a 
building  of  its  children.  A  fairly  good  speed  will  prevent 
dawdling,  save  time,  and  give  a  proper  tone  to  work  when 
the  children  arrive  at  their  seats.  A  little  study  of  how  fast 
the  line  can  move  to  advantage  will  be  desirable.  No  slov- 
enly behavior  of  any  sort  should  be  permitted.  If  talking 
in  a  low  tone  while  in  line  is  found  to  interfere  with  the 
movement  of  the  line  it  should  be  stopped.  There  are  few 
places  where  some  supervision  of  the  lines  will  not  be  neces- 
sary, though  the  idea  of  self-government  in  the  lines  should 
be  cultivated. 


ORGANIZING  THE  SCHOOL  117 

In  most  schools  these  lines  will  form  and  pass  to  or  from 
the  building  at  least  eight  times  a  day,  or  forty  times  a 
week.  If  it  takes  two  minutes  for  each  trip,  that  means 
more  than  five  hours  per  month  devoted  to  this  exercise. 
It  would  be  a  pity  if  nothing  of  real  value  came  from  the 
expenditure  of  so  much  time.  The  aim  should  be,  first,  an 
orderly  entrance  and  exit  in  as  short  a  time  as  is  conducive 
to  safety  and  comfort;  second,  careful  training  in  how  to 
keep  the  chest  and  head  up,  and  how  to  move  with  accuracy 
and  decision.  That  is,  demand  of  this  bit  of  machinery  that 
it  shall  not  only  be  a  means,  but  that  it  shall  show  in  the 
carriage  and  manners  of  each  child  a  definite  educational 
output. 

The  fire  drill.  At  irregular  intervals,  in  buildings  where 
there  is  the  least  danger  from  fire,  these  very  same  lines  will 
be  formed  and  the  very  same  movements  will  be  gone 
through  with  at  a  sHghtly  increased  speed.  Such  drills 
should  always  be  strictly  supervised  by  the  teachers,  who 
will  invariably  be  the  last  persons  to  leave  the  building. 
They  will  be  called  at  the  times  least  expected,  and  if  it 
happens  at  any  time  when  the  children  are  in  process  of 
entering  they  should  be  drilled  in  facing  about  and  reversing 
their  movements.  In  such  drills  the  lines  should  not  break 
till  the  last  child  is  some  step)s  from  the  building.  This 
insures  against  fright  or  panic  of  any  sort. 

Handling  wraps.  Some  forty  times  a  week  the  children's 
wraps  must  be  handled.  Where  it  is  possible  for  the  lines 
to  pass  through  the  cloak-rooms,  the  wraps  may,  during 
most  of  the  year,  be  deposited  on  assigned  hooks  as  the 
children  enter  and  leave.  Where  this  cannot  be  done  a 
group  of  monitors  should  be  assigned  to  collect  and  dis- 
tribute them.  Here  careful  planning  needs  to  be  done  in 
advance,  and  the  time  carefully  figured.  Once  the  best  time 
standard  is  established,  the  monitors,  newly  appointed  from 


118  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

time  to  time,  will  know  what  is  expected  of  them,  and  they 
will  take  pride  in  living  up  to  the  standard  set. 

Distributing  and  collecting  papers,  pens,  etc.  There  is 
constant  need  for  a  plan  of  distributing  the  necessary 
books  and  supplies  which  the  children  use  at  their  seats, 
and  most  of  this  sort  of  work  can  be  done  according  to  a 
set  plan  by  monitors.  Where  papers  are  to  be  collected, 
they  may  sometimes  be  passed  forward,  the  children  in 
the  front  seats  placing  them  in  orderiy  piles  on  the  teacher's 
desk. 

In  all  such  work  the  teacher  will  need  to  watch  the  time 
consumed  and  keep  her  standards  for  speed  and  order 
high.  Every  moment  lost  by  a  monitor  means  not  one  but 
as  many  as  the  number  of  pupils  he  serves. 

Leaving  the  room.  Freedom  to  leave  the  room  at  will  is 
desirable,  but  such  privilege  is  almost  siu^  to  be  abused. 
While  over-leniency  is  a  little  better  than  too  great  restric- 
tion, there  is  possibility  here  for  some  very  important  work 
to  be  done.  Though  the  subject  of  the  proper  use  of  the 
toilet  is  perhaps  a  delicate  one  to  handle,  it  is  an  important 
one  from  the  standpoint  of  health,  as  well  as  from  that  of 
social  and  moral  development.  A  frank  but  good-natured 
talk  with  the  boys  and  girls  separately  will  go  far  toward 
starting  right  habits  along  these  lines. 

Keeping  desks  and  room  orderly.  Good  order  about  a 
pupil's  desk  first  of  all  expedites  his  movements  in  getting 
the  book,  pencil,  or  paper  he  wants  without  bending  over 
to  look  for  it.  Secondly,  an  orderiy  desk  is  conducive  to 
clear  thinking.  Knowing  exactly  where  this  or  that  book 
or  paper  is  is  next  to  knowing  where  this  or  that  idea  is. 
Habits  of  this  sort  can  easily  be  extended  in  number  and 
variety,  to  include  the  entire  room  and  playground,  to  the 
end  that  bits  of  chalk  and  paper  on  the  floor  will  be  picked 
up  by  the  first  child  who  sees  them,  the  basket  ball  will 


ORGANIZING  THE  SCHOOL  119 

always  be  in  its  place,  and  the  window  shades  and  pictures 
on  the  waUs  will  be  straight. 

Habits  of  this  sort  will  not  form  themselves,  however. 
The  very  first  day  they  should  be  started  carefully,  and 
then  with  eternal  vigilance  one  may  hope  to  succeed  in 
getting  all  these  things  done  so  perfectly  that  no  one  thinks 
of  them. 

Personal  cleanliness.  Along  with  these  habits  go  those 
relating  to  personal  cleanliness.  John's  stubborn  hair  can 
be  parted,  if  he  works  long  and  often  enough  with  it.  Many 
children  have  never  learned  to  clean  their  teeth  and  naUs 
at  home,  and  some  appear  never  to  have  learned  to  keep 
hands  and  face  clean.  It  is  not  only  the  business  of  the 
school  to  teach  the  importance  of  these  things,  but  it  ought 
to  be  one  of  its  first  and  most  important  duties  to  fix  such 
knowledge  in  the  form  of  established  habits. 

The  daily  program  and  other  details.  There  are  certain 
other  features  of  the  necessary  organization  which  involve 
habit  formation  to  a  limited  extent,  as  the  order  of  study 
and  recitation  periods,  —  which  will  be  treated  in  a  sepa- 
rate chapter,  —  the  arrangement  of  written  work,  the  use  of 
reference  books,  the  passing  of  articles  to  other  pupils,  etc. 
The  customary  routine  of  roll  call  will  be  unnecessary  by 
the  fact  that,  since  the  children  are  assigned  permanent 
seats,  the  teacher  has  only  to  have  the  seats  numbered  and 
to  note  down  the  numbers  of  the  vacant  seats  on  a  card,  and 
to  make  the  record  in  the  evening  as  she  is  preparing  her 
room  for  the  next  day's  work. 

The  necessary  signals.  Some  kind  of  simple  system  of 
signals,  such  as  words  or  movements,  will  be  foimd  neces- 
sary in  order  to  produce  imity  of  action.  A  bell  or  gong 
sounds  three  or  five  minutes  before  time  for  entrance. 
Games  cease  and  children  go  to  the  drinking  fountain  or 
lavatory  to  make  ready  for  the  second  bell,  which  means 


1«0  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

form  in  line.  Immediately  the  line  is  formed  some  one 
teacher  or  older  pupU  at  the  entrance  gives  the  signal,  a 
simple  tap  of  a  bell  or  wave  of  a  hand  and  the  line  enters, 
each  child  passing  promptly  to  his  or  her  seat  without  de- 
lay. If  wraps  were  not  deposited  on  entering,  a  second  sig- 
nal starts  the  monitors  who  collect  the  wraps  which  are 
found  on  the  side  of  the  desk  near  the  aisle  down  which  the 
monitor  passes.  In  some  rooms  a  simple  signal  for  be- 
ginning work  is  desirable  for  the  sake  of  the  few  who  have 
not  learned  to  make  the  right  use  of  time.  In  calling  classes, 
collecting  and  distributing  supplies,  etc.,  other  signals  are 
necessary.  In  all  cases  avoid  the  noisy  or  ceremonious. 
The  quiet  businesslike  way  is  best  and  most  effective  in  all 
cases. 

In  all  the  above  plans  the  aim  is  concerted  action,  prompt- 
ness, and  regularity.  While  these  habits  are  all  specialized 
for  school  purposes,  yet  every  one  of  them  is  of  value  in 
itself.  Some  are  for  reasons  of  health  and  general  cleanli- 
ness and  refinement;  others  are  insurance  against  panic, 
which  might  be  useful  to  a  certain  extent  in  a  burning  theater 
or  a  sinking  boat,  as  well  as  in  a  school  building;  others 
are  essential  elements  in  all  scientific  and  scholarly  train- 
ing, and  not  one  of  them  robs  the  child  of  anything  that 
is  essential  to  his  individuaHty  or  initiative,  nor  do  they 
accustom  him  to  too  much  bHnd  obedience. 

5.  Chapter  summary 

In  this  chapter  we  have  explained  the  problem  that  is  to  be 
treated  in  Part  HI,  where  we  change  from  emphasis  upon  the 
individual  to  emphasis  upon  the  group.  Here  we  have  tried  to 
make  clear  that  all  effective  school  machinery  must  serve  both  as 
means  and  as  end.  That  is,  it  must  not  only  conserve  both  time 
and  energy,  but  it  must  furnish  the  child  with  useful  knowledge, 
skills,  and  ideals  as  well. 

We  have  shown  the  application  of  these  principles  in  suggested 


ORGANIZING  THE  SCHOOL  121 

plans  of  organization  for  which  the  teacher  is  responsible.  From 
what  has  been  said  it  should  be  clear  that  habits  of  order  in  enter- 
ing the  room,  in  distributing  supplies,  in  promptness,  in  keeping 
the  desks  and  room  clean,  must  be  firmly  established,  and  that 
success  depends,  first,  upon  a  right  start,  and  second,  upon  ever- 
lasting persistence. 

REFERENCES  FOR  ADDITIONAL  READING 

Bagley,  W.  C,  Classroom  Management,  chaps,  ii,  in. 
Colgrove,  C.  P.,  The  Teacher  and  the  School,  chap.  v. 
Wray,  A.,  Jean  MitcheWs  School,  chap.  ii. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  In  beginning  your  own  first  teaching,  to  what  extent  did  your  earlier 
experience  as  a  pupil  dictate  your  schemes  of  organization?  To  what 
extent  were  you  later  forced  to  change  those  first  plans? 

2.  State  the  law  of  habit  formation,  and  explain  what  it  would  mean  to 
apply  that  law  in  organizing  your  school. 

3.  Explain  how  some  feature  of  organization  may  be  of  use  both  as  a 
means  and  an  end  in  teaching. 

4.  Why  has  the  increased  popularity  of  education  made  new  demands 
upon  organization?  What  are  some  of  these? 

5.  What  would  an  inexperienced  teacher  want  to  talk  over  with  her 
principal  or  superintendent  a  week  before  school  opened? 

6.  If  you  were  to  teach  your  first  school  in  the  country,  and  could  not 
go  for  a  personal  conference  with  your  county  superintendent,  what 
questions  would  you  ask  in  a  letter?  Formulate  a  definite  list  of  such 
questions,  keeping  in  mind  that  none  but  definite  questions  can  be 
answered  satisfactorily. 

7.  Supposing  you  are  to  teach  a  rural  school,  tell  what  you  would  expect 
to  learn  and  to  do  on  your  visit  to  the  building  the  day  before  school 
opens. 

8.  Suppose  that  you  have  accepted  a  position  in  an  eighteen-teacher 
school,  and  that  you  are  going  for  a  conference  with  your  principal. 
Formulate  a  list  of  questions  you  expect  to  get  answered  in  that  con- 
ference. Formulate  a  list  that  you  might  be  called  upon  to  answer. 

9.  Suppose  that  you  have  thirty  pupils,  and  that  you  occupy  a  room  on 
the  second  floor.  The  pupils  have  just  entered,  and  the  monitors  have 
the  wraps  about  half  collected  when  the  fire  gong  soimds.  Make  a 
list  of  the  commands  you  would  give,  and  describe  the  procedure  you 
would  follow. 

10.  Write  out  a  little  speech  which  you  think  might  be  appropriate  for  a 
nual  teacher  to  give  to  her  thirty-five  pupils  on  the  first  morning  of 
her  first  day  at  the  school. 


122  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

11.  What  would  you  expect  to  accomplish  by  having  the  children  march 
in  and  out  of  the  building  every  day? 

12.  With  the  chapter  on  incentives  in  mind,  explain  how  you  would  make 
use  of  the  monitorial  positions  as  incentives  in  your  rural  school. 

13.  Suppose  John  abuses  the  privilege  of  leaving  the  room  at  will,  write 
the  necessary  note  to  his  mother. 

14.  Tell  how  you  would  keep  your  attendance  record  without  calling  the 
roll  each  day. 

15.  About  how  much  time  would  you  expect  to  consume  per  week  in  the 
following  activities  in  a  rural  school  of  thirty-five  pupils  of  all  grades: 
(1)  entering  and  leaving  the  building;  (2)  disposing  of  wraps? 


CHAPTER  X 

GRADING  AND  PROMOTING 

Outline  of  Chapter 

1.  Class  and  individual  systems  of  instruction  —  Group  work  a  necessity  —  Crroup 
werms  individual  instruction. 

2.  The  proper  bases  for  grading  —  Grading  related  to  other  problems  —  Possible  bases 
—  When  children  may  work  together  —  Correct  bases  —  Individual  differences  in  general 
intelligence  —  The  distribution  of  intelligence  —  How  these  differences  show  themselves  — 
Teacher  must  understand  scientific  tests. 

3.  Difficulties  in  applying  these  principles  —  Difficulties  stated  —  Practical  solution  — 
Teacher's  judgment  not  trustworthy  —  The  principle  applies  in  ungraded  school. 

4.  Flexibility  the  essential  element  —  Need  for  frequent  reclassification  —  Two  ways 
of  obtaining  flexibility  —  The  single-course  plan  —  The  multiple-course  plan  —  Results 
under  the  multiple-course  plan. 

5.  Promotion  by  grades  and  by  subjects  —  The  old  annual  grade  promotion  plan  —  How 
to  overcome  these  evils. 

6.  The  teacher's  problem  —  Why  teachers  should  understand  promotional  plans. 

7.  Summary  —  References  —  Questions. 

1.  Class  and  individual  systems  of  instruction 

Group  work  a  necessity.  In  the  above  chapter  we  have 
dealt  with  the  more  or  less  external  features  of  the  schooFs 
organization,  taking  classes  for  granted.  Here  we  are  to 
examinie  the  principles  and  plans  e/sential  to  the  formation 
■of  these  instructional  groups.  The  problem  is  at  once  one 
of  economy  and  of  sound  teaching  principles.  A  community 
has  a  large  number  of  children  to  teach,  there  is  a  fairly 
well-defined  body  of  knowledge  to  be  taught,  and^nancial 
resources  are  in  a  measure  limited.  How  best  to  give  to 
each  child  this  common  fund  of  knowledge  and  experience, 
and  how  to  do  this  in  the  most  economical  way,  is  the  ques- 
tion. 

The  basis  upon  which  class  groups  will  be  organized  will 
depend  upon  whether  we  expect  to  teach  the  pupils  together, 
as  a  class,  or  separately,  as  individuals.  K  by  groups,  then 
they  must  be  organized  somewhat  on  the  basis  of  the  work 


124  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

they  are  capable  of  doing;  if  by  individuals,  then  each  pupil 
must  be  permitted  to  work  as  rapidly  as  he  can  without 
reference  to  what  others  can  do. 

Group  versus  individual  instruction.  What  are  the  rela- 
tive merits  of  these  two  points  of  view?  The  arguments 
for  the  class  plan  of  instruction  are:  — 

1.  It  brings  the  child  into  intimate  contact  with  other  pupils, 
whereby  he  learns  that  there  are  children  who  are  as  original, 
or  as  stupid  as  he,  and  so  leams  to  know  his  own  ability  in 
terms  of  the  abilities  of  others. 

2.  He  is  forced  into  competition  of  all  kinds,  competition  in 
ideas,  in  speed  and  accuracy,  in  the  requirements  of  the  vari- 
ous skills,  and  in  good  manners,  and  is  thereby  stimulated 
to  do  his  very  best. 

3.  He  learns  ho\(^  to  cooperate  with  his  fellows  in  all  the  various 
class  exercises. 

4.  Through  these  intimate  contacts  he  develops  a  more  cosmo- 
poHtan  point  of  view,  a  broader  basis  for  human  sympathy, 
and  a  saner  view  of  his  own  rights  and  duties. 

5.  Practically  none  of  these  things  can  be  efiFectively  accom- 
plished by  strictly  individual  instruction. 

Certainly  life  outside  of  the  school  is  full  of  comp)etition 
and  cooperation,  and  certainly  for  training  along  executive 
lines  these  social  contacts  are  indispensable. 

The  advocates  of  individual  instruction,  on  the  other 
hand,  will  insist  that:  — 

1.  Group  instruction  attempts  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  fictitious 
"average  child,"  and  so  loses  sight  of  individual  differences. 

2.  It  tends  to  become  mechanical  and  to  operate  on  the  princi- 
ple of  the  survival  of  the  fittest. 

3.  This  failure  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  individual  causes  great 
nervous  strain  on  the  weaker  pupils. 

4.  It  tends  to  discourage  those  who  find  it  hard  to  keep  up  with 
their  grade. 

5.  Individual  instruction  in  most  of  these  matters  has  the  oppo- 
site effect  of  conserving  the  health  and  energy  of  the  indivi- 
dual, and  of  adapting  the  method  and  the  content  to  the  par- 
ticular needs  of  each  child. 


GRADING  AND  PROMOTING  125 

These  arguments  seem  to  the  writer  to  point  out  abuses 
which  are  entirely  possible,  but  by  no  means  inherent  in 
the  group  system.  There  must  be  a  middle  ground  between 
these  extreme  views  which  will  conserve  the  best  elements 
of  each,  without  including  the  evils  of  either.  This  the 
graded  system  has  attempted,  during  the  last  half-centuiy, 
to  discover. 

S.  The  proper  bases  for  grading 

Grading  related  to  other  problems.  Any  system  of  grad- 
ing is  intimately  connected  with  two  other  problems  in 
school  organization,  namely,  that  of  curriculum  making, 
and  that  of  promoting  children  from  gracje  to  grade.  For 
each  group  of  children  there  is  a  corresponding  section  in 
the  course  of  study,  and  the  promotion  of  a  child  from  one 
grade  to  another  must  mean  that  he  has  completed  one 
section  of  the  course  of  study  and  is  ready  to  begin  the 
next. 

Here  we  are  concerned  with  two  problems :  first,  the  re- 
lation between  groups  of  children  on  the  one  hand,  and 
the  relation  between  groups  of  subject-matter  on  the  other; 
and  second,  what  are  the  principles  underlying  the  organi- 
zation of  each.  (The  organization  of  subject-matter  will 
be  treated  in  the  following  chapter.)  Shall  we  group  chil- 
dren in  terms  of  an  arbitrarily  prearranged  course  of  study, 
or  must  the  length  and  character  of  the  sections  of  the 
course  of  study  be  determined  by  the  nature  of  the  group 
of  children  to  be  taught? 

If  we  were  to  organize  the  subject-matter  of  arithmetic 
in  the  most  careful  and  logical  manner  we  should  find  that 
the  natural  divisions  of  the  subject  would  be  unequal  in 
both  length  and  diflSculty,  and  the  same  would  be  true  of 
history  or  geography  materials.  Secondly,  the  logical  divi- 
sions of  arithmetic  would  not  correspond  in  length  to  those 


12«  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

of  history.  This  being  true  of  other  subjects,  we  can  readily 
see  that  the  bare  logic  of  subject-matter  cannot  become  the 
basis  for  the  organization  of  the  curriculum,  to  say  nothing 
of  its  significance  for  the  organization  of  groups  of 
children. 

What  then  are  the  principles  underlying  the  grading  and 
classification  of  children.?  The  aim  of  grading  is  to  make  it 
possible  to  teach  a  given  subject  to  a  number  of  children  at 
the  same  time.  This  means  that  the  children  must  be  homo- 
geneous with  respect  to  the  task,  and  our  problem  is  to  find 
the  essential  basis  of  this  homogeneity. 

Possible  bases.  There  are  numerous  ways  in  which  we 
might  group  children  for  instructional  puiposes. 

1.  We  might  group  them  with  respect  to  sex.  But  while  inves- 
tigations have  shown  that  boys  and  girls  differ  in  respect  to 
their  achievements  in  school,  these  differences  are  not  so  pro- 
noimced  as  to  warrant  separate  groups  for  instructional  pur- 
poses.^ 

2.  We  might  grade  children  on  the  basis  of  chronological  age, 
but  our  retardation  studies  show  that  chronological  age  is  no 
index  to  what  children  can  do  in  school  work.  2 

3.  We  might  use  physiological  age  as  a  basis,  but,  while  we  know 
that  physiological  age  often  does  not  correspond  closely  to 
chronological  age,  we  do  not  know  how  closely  it  corresponds 
to  ability  to  do  school  work.^ 

4.  We  might  use  psychological  age,  that  is,  general  intelligence, 
as  a  basis,  only  that  this  does  not  tell  us  what  specific  prepa- 
ration a  child  may  have  for  doing  work  of  a  given  kind. 

5.  We  might  use  school  examinations,  but  we  know  that  such 
tests  are  untrustworthy. 

6.  We  might  use  "time  in  school"  as  a  basis,  but  tests  show  that 
children  of  the  same  age,  sex,  physical  conditions,  and  train- 

*  Thomdike,  E.  L.,  Educational  Psychology  (2d  ed.),  chap,  m,  also.  Sears, 
J.  B.,  Spelling  Efficiency  in  the  Schools  of  Oakland,  Col. 

2  Ayers,  L.  P.,  Laggards  in  Our  Schools. 

'  Crampton,  C.  W.,  "The  Influence  of  Physiolo^cal  Age  upon  Scholar- 
ship," in  The  P^ychologiccd  Clinic  (1907),  pp.  115-20. 


GRADING  AND  PROMOTING  127 

ing  vary  greatly  in  the  amounts  of  work  they  can  accomplish 
in  a  given  time. 
7.  As  far  as  possible  our  basis  should  be  that  of  ability  to  do 
accurately  a  definite  piece  of  work  at  a  given  rate. 

When  children  may  work  together.  From  this  we  are 
reminded  that  children  are  unlike  in  almost  every  particu- 
lar. To  teach  a  dozen  or  twenty  children  in  a  group  it  is 
of  course  not  necessary  that  they  should  be  exactly  alike. 
It  is  only  necessary  that  they  be  nearly  enough  alike  so 
that  on  a  given  problem  they  will  all  require  about  the  same 
amount  of  assistance.  It  is  a  question  then,  first,  of  what 
are  the  traits  which  determine  a  child's  abihty  to  do  a 
given  amount  of  a  given  kind  of  work  in  a  given  time;  and 
second,  are  the  individual  differences  in  these  traits  so  pro- 
nounced as  to  make  impossible  or  extremely  difficult  the 
grouping  of  children  for  purposes  of  teaching. 

Correct  bases.  In  order  to  settle  these  questions  let  us 
repeat;  first,  that  in  their  bearing  on  instruction  sex  differ- 
ences are  small;  that  chronological  age  does  not  at  all  indi- 
cate "  abihty  to  do  work  ";  that  school  examinations  are 
not  satisfactory,  because  they  only  show  what  a  child  knows, 
and  not  how  rapidly  he  can  do  a  given  piece  of  work;  and 
that  time  in  school  is  not  a  practical  basis.  Physiological 
age,  to  a  certain  extent,  and  psychological  age  almost  cer- 
tainly, indicate  how  difficult  work  a  child  can  do,  and  how 
rapidly  he  can  do  it.  They  fail  only  to  show  what  previous 
formal  preparation  the  child  may  have  had  for  doing  the 
work  in  question. 

Individual  differences  in  general  intelligence.  In  view 
of  the  fact  then  that  it  is  upon  the  basis  of  intelligence  and 
previous  training  that  we  must  group  the  children  for  in- 
structional purposes,  we  are  concerned  here  with  a  quanti- 
tative statement  of  the  individual  differences  among  chil- 
dren in  respect  to  physiological  and  psychological  age,  and 


128 


CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 


in  respect  to  previous  preparation  for  a  given  piece  of  work. 
So,  if  we  had  eight  hundred  children  to  grade  the  bestmetbod 
would  be  to  determine,  first,  their  general  intell^Sce,  per- 
haps  by  physiological,  and  certainly  by  psychological  tests, 
and  second,  their  previous  preparation,  by  pedagogical  tests. 
The  following  diagram  shows  the  distribution  of  905 
unselected  children,  five  to  fourteen  years  old,  with  respect 
to  general  intelligence.  This  distribution  is  based  upon  the 
Stanford  revision  of  the  Binet-Simon  tests  for  measuring 
general  intelligence.  ^    The  term  "  intelligence  quotient  " 


fl6-7fi 


96-105 


106-H5 


U6-125 
9.0* 


8.6  <  20M 

Fig.  1.  The  Distribution"  of  Intelligence 


I2&-136 
22* 


tas-nt 


Showing  distribution  of  I  Q's  of  905  unselected  children  5-14  years  oi  age. 
(From  Terman's  The  Measuremeni  of  Intdligence.) 

(I  Q)  means  the  ratio  of  mental  age  to  chronological  age. 
A  mentally  normal  child  has  an  I  Q  of  approximately  100. 
If,  however,  an  eight-year-old  child  tests  as  ten  years  old 
mentally,  then  his  I  Q  would  not  be  100,  but  125,  or  25 
above  normal,  etc.  A  study  of  this  figure  shows  that  these 
905  children  range  in  I  Q's  from  56  to  145;  that  is,  from  very 
low  to  very  high  mentality.  • 

The  distribution  of  intelligence.  This  diagram  gives, 
perhaps,  as  true  a  description  of  the  range  of  intelligence 

^  For  a  full  explanation  of  the  scale  and  its  use  the  reader  is  referred  to 
The  Measurement  of  Intelligence  by  Dr.  Lewis  M.  Terman.  (Houghton 
MiflBin  Company,  Boston,  1916.) 


GRADING  AND  PROMOTING  129 

among  elementary-school  children  as  can  be  given  to  date, 
and  we  should  note  the  following  facts  which  this  diagram 
brings  out:  first,  that  about  ojie  third  of  the  children  tested 
are  non^al  (96-105);  second,  that  almost  exactly  as  many 
are  above  as  below  normal;  third,  that  the  distribution  of 
those -above  normal  corresponds  closely  to  the  distribution 
of  those  below  normal.  That  is,  the  .33  per  cent  who  have 
I  Q's  between  56  and  65  are  offset  by  the  .55  per  cent,  at 
the  upper  extreme  with  I  Q's  between  136  and  145,  etc., 
with  the  other  groups.  Certainly  the  child  at  the  upper 
extreme  can  work  at  an  incomparably  faster  rate  in  school 
subjects,  or  at  anything  else,  than  can  the  child  at  the  lower 
extreme. 

For  any  scheme  of  grading  or  promotion  whatsoever  this 
distribution  of  human  intelligence  is  f imdamental  fact  num- 
ber one. 

How  these  differences  show  themselves.  The  next  ques- 
tion is,  how  do  these  individual  differences  in  intelligence 
reveal  themselves  in  the  educational  output  of  a  group  of 
children  who  have  worked  together  on  a  given  subject  for 
a  given  length  of  time.  This  can  be  answered  best  in  terms 
of  the  results  shown  by  giving  some  standardized  pedagogi- 
cal test.  For  this  purpose  the  following  diagram,  repre- 
senting the  scores  attained  by  416  sixth  grade  children  in 
a  test  in  addition,  is  presente^.  Presumably  these  children 
had  had  approximately  equal  training  in  addition,  and  yet 
twelve  of  them  failed  to  complete  one  problem  correctly, 
while  two  others  completed  eighteen  correctly.  Just  as 
many  worked  less  as  worked  more  than  six  problems. 

It  is  obvious  that  these  children  have  worked  with  widely 
different  degrees  of  effectiveness  during  their  first  six  years 
in  school.  That  is,  assuming  that  all  started  equal  in  their 
knowledge  of  addition,  we  find  these  differences  at  the  end 
of  six  years.   The  most  satisfactory  explanation  for  these 


180 


CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 


differences  in  adding  ability  is  difference  in  mentality.  These 
mental  differences  were  there  to  begin  with,  but  in  grading 
these  children  they  were  ignored.  Simply  because  the  chil- 
dren aU  entered  at  the  same  time,  and  were  about  the  same 

M 


O     J     2.    3    ^    >5-   6    7     8     *y    /O   If   /Z  13   l«f  /S-  /6    IT  18 

Fig.  2.  Distribution  of  Work  done  in  Addition 

Showing  the  distribution  of  scores  of  416  sixth-grade  children  in  Courtis  addition  test. 
M  =  number  of  examples  completed  by  m^an  child. 

# 

age,  it  was  assumed  that  they  could  aQ  work  together.  This 
diagram  proves  that  that  was  a  false  assumption.  The  re- 
sult is  that  about  one  fourth  of  the  group  are  wasting  their 
opportunity  trying  to  do  something  they  cannot  do,  while 
another  fourth  are  doing  the  same,  because,  not  having  to 
work  to  keep  up  with  the  class,  they  are  developing  habits 
of  inattention,  indifference,  and  laziness. 

Teacher  must  understand  scientific  tests.    From  these 
facts  it  becomes  obvious  that  a  system  of  grading,  to  be 


GRADING  AND  PROMOTING  131 

-effective,  must  give  careful  consideration  to  two  things:  — 
first,  native  intelligence;  and  second,  previous  training.  To 
find  these  the  teacher  and  principal  need  a  working  knowl- 
edge of  two  sets  of  educational  tools,  namely,  scales  for 
measuring  intelligence,^  and  tests  or  scales  for  measuring 
knowledge  and  skill.  ^  The  child's  health,  his  physiological 
age,  and  his  size  and  chronological  age  to  a  hmited  ex- 
tent, as  well  as  examinations  and  the  teacher's  judgment, 
will  also  enter  as  modifying  factors  in  difficult  cases,  but  in- 
telligence and  previous  training  are  basic  and  fundamental. 

3.  Difficulties  in  applying  these  principles 

Difficulties  stated.  It  is  easy  to  say  that  children  should 
be  graded  and  promoted  on  the  basis  of  their  abilities  to  do 
work  of  a  certain  degree  of  difficulty,  but  there  are  many 
practical  difficulties  to  be  overcome  in  carrying  out  this 
dictum.  When  school  opens  in  the  autumn,  twenty  or  fifty 
pupils,  five  to  seven  years  old,  enter  for  the  first  time.  If 
measured  for  intelligence  we  should  find  them  distributed 
very  much  as  shown  in  Fig.  1,  above,  though  probably 
without  showing  the  lower  extreme.  If  measured  for  knowl- 
edge of  subjects  to  be  studied  let  us  assume  that  we  should 
find  them  all  equal,  or  nearly  so.  Now  how  shall  we  apply 
these  two  facts  iiL  grading  such  a  group?  Certainly  they 
must  all  begin  at  the  same  {)lace  in  their  studies,  namely, 
at  the  beginning. 

Practical  solution.  Then  they  may  as  well  begin  together 
in  a  single  class,  or  in  two  classes  if  there  are  more  than 
thirty.   Our  problem  is,  how  to  provide  for  the  different 

*  Terman,  L.  M.,  The  Measurement  of  Intelligence.  (Houghton  Mifflin 
Company,  1916.)  The  most  useful  book  for  intelligence  testmg. 

*  Monroe,  DeVoss,  and  Kelly,  Educational  Tests  and  Measurements. 
(Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  1917.)  The  most  useful  book  on  tests  and 
measurements  in  the  school  subjects. 


1S«  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

rates  of  progress  which  our  intelligence  test  indicates  as  pos- 
sible for  the  different  children?  It  is  not  reasonable  to  expect 
the  child  with  an  I Q  of  80  to  keep  pace  with  the  child  whose 
I  Q  is  130.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  that  practically  from 
the  start  the  class  should  be  divided  into  three  groups,  with 
those  whose  I  Q*s  are  below  95  in  one  group,  those  whose 
I  Q's  are  95  to  106  in  another,  and  those  whose  I  Q's  are 
above  106  in  a  third.  According  to  Fig.  1,  this  would  divide 
them  almost  equally  into  three  groups.  Any  one  teacher  can 
handle  three  such  groups  far  more  effectively  than  she  can 
handle  them  together  as  one  group. 

Teacher*s  judgment  not  trustworthy.  To  show  that  this 
is  practically  possible  we  have  only  to  add  that  this  is  pre- 
cisely what  is  being  done  now  in  our  better  city  schools, 
with  the  exception  that  intelligence  is  being  determined, 
not  by  adequate  psychological  tests,  but  by  the  teacher*s 
judgment  alone.  To  show  that  the  teacher's  judgment, 
though  an  indispensable  factor  always,  is  often  erroneous, 
we  have  only  to  cite  the  results  of  careful  investigations  of 
this  question.  ^  These  studies  show  that  the  bright  children, 
though  accelerated  for  their  chronological  age,  are  almost 
always  retarded  for  their  mental  age.  This  means  that  the 
teacher  (or  the  grading  and  promotion  machinery)  did  not 
let  the  bright  pupils  go  as  fast  as  they  were  capable  of  going. 
Just  the  opposite  of  this  is  found  to  be  ftue  of  children  of 
low  mentality.  2 

The  point  is  that  the  teacher  is  too  often  satisfied  when 
John  is  leading  his  class,  when  the  fact  is  he  ought  to  be 
leading  the  next  class  above.   It  is  merely  one  more  point 

*  Dr.  Tennan  has  shown  that  teachers  almost  invariably  overestimate 
the  intelligence  of  children  of  low  mentality,  and  that  they  underestimate 
that  of  children  of  high  mentaUty.  See  his  Measurement  of  Intelligence, 
ch&p.  m.  These  findings  are  clearly  borne  out  by  the  results  of  recent 
pedagogical  tests. 

2  Hoke,  K.  J.,  Placement  of  Children  in  the  Elementary  Grades.  U.S. 
Bureau  of  Education.  Bui.  (1916),  No.  3. 


GRADING  AND  PROMOTING  ISS 

at  which  ox-cart  methods  in  school  work  must  give  place 
to  the  more  refined  methods  of  science. 

The  principle  applies  in  ungraded  school.  But  here  we 
have  assumed  that  the  entering  class  would  have  the  en- 
tire attention  of  one  teacher,  whereas,  save  in  large  schools, 
this  is  not  possible.  Probably  at  least  two  thirds  of  all  the 
children  in  the  United  States  do  not  enter  school  under  such 
conditions.  Instead. they  enter  a  room  containing  from  two 
to  eight  full  grades,  and  it  is  in  such  places  that  the  for- 
mation of  these  special  divisions  of  each  grade  is  difficult 
or  impossible,  for  in  addition  to  the  differences  in  native 
intelligence,  the  pupils  will  necessarily  vary  greatly  in  age, 
size,  and  previous  training.  Instruction  imder  such  cir- 
cumstances is  of  course  more  difficult,  but  it  can  be  made 
more  effective  if  the  teacher  knows  the  kind  of  intelli- 
gence she  has  to  work  with.  She  can  then  add  library  and 
report  work  to  the  assignments  of  the  brighter  pupils,  and 
ease  up  the  load  on  those  not  so  bright.  We  might  say 
that  the  more  widely  her  children  vary  in  intelligence  and 
in  previous  training  the  more  individualistic  her  instruc- 
tion must  be  made. 

^.  Flexibility  the  essential  element 

Need  for  frequent  reclassification.  In  any  system  of  grad- 
ing flexibihty  is  the  essential  element  demanded  by  the 
facts  we  have  pointed  out  above.  If  children  vary  in  in- 
telligence, as  we  have  already  shown,  and  can  consequently 
work  at  different  rates  of  speed,  the  system  of  grading  must 
make  possible  a  frequent  reclassification  in  order  that  those 
who  are  capable  may  not  be  held  back  by  the  slower  pupils, 
and  in  order  that  the  slower  pupils  may  not  be  overworked 
or  discouraged.  Numerous  systems,  varying  from  no  elas- 
ticity to  extreme  individual  instruction,  have  been  devised 
to  meet  these  demands. 


134 


CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 


Two  ways  of  obtaining  flexibility.  There  are  two  possible 
methods  by  which  such  flexibility  may  be  provided.  One  is 
to  have  a  single  course  of  study  for  all,  and  correct  inequali- 
ties by  regrouping  or  promoting  at  frequent  intervals,  push- 
ing the  bright  pupils  ahead  and  the  extremely  slow  ones 
back.  The  other  is  to  have  two  or  more  courses  of  study, 
differing  in  the  amount  of  supplementary  work  to  be  done 
in  addition  to  covering  a  certain  minimum  common  to  each. 
The  difference  between  these  two  plans  is  that  in  the  one 
all  children  who  complete  the  eight  grades  wiQ  have  cov- 
ered the  same  ground,  some  in  six  years,  perhaps,  others 
in  seven,  eight,  nine,  or  even  ten.  Some  will  therefore  be 
twelve,  others  sixteen  years  old,  when  they  are  ready  to 
enter  the  high  school.  By  the  other  plan,  if  carried  out  to 
its  logical  limits,  all  are  the  same  age,  that  is  fourteen, 
when  they  finish  the  elementary  school,  and  all  have  alike 
covered  the  essential  facts  and  principles  in  the  course  of 
study,  but  in  addition  to  this  the  brighter  pupils  have  en- 
riched this  common  core  of  learning  with  much  supplemen- 
tary work. 

The  single-course  plan.  The  working  of  the  two  plans 
will  be  made  clearer  by  the  following  diagrams.  Let  us  sup- 


Sept.      Oct.      Nov.      Dec.       Jan.       Feb.       Mar.      Apr.      May       June 


Fig.  3.  Group  Progress  with  a  Course  or  Study 

The  five  different  groups  made  different  rates  of  progress  during  the  half-jrear  shown  here. 
(FVom  Cubberley's  Public  Sdiool  Adminittraiion.) 

pose  that  the  coiu-se  of  study  for  the  elementary  school  is 
divided  into  eight  equal  parts,  each  part  representing  the 


GRADING  AND  PROMOTING 


135 


work  of  one  year,  and  that  each  year's  work  is  divided 
into  ten  sections  each  representing  a  month's  work.  The 
vertical  bar  in  Fig.  3  will  represent  the  end  of  a  half-year's 
work.  Let  us  imagine  a  class  of  thirty  pupils  starting  to- 
gether on  this  half-year's  work,  beginning  at  the  left  end  of 
the  figure.  If  they  are  all  equal  in  intelligence,  previous 
preparation,  health,  etc.,  they  will  keep  together,  and  ar- 
rive at  the  right  end  of  the  figure  at  the  end  of  the  year. 
They  are  not  equal  in  these  respects,  however,  and  so  in  a 
few  weeks  some  are  ahead  of  the  class,  while  others  are  be- 
hind. At  the  end  of  the  half-year  we  find  about  four  or  five 
pupils  who  have  completed  the  half-year's  work  and  done 
two  or  three  sections  on  the  next  half-year's  work.  We  find 
another  small  number  who  have  completed  only  about 
three  sections  of  the  half-year's  work.  If  these  thirty  pupils 
move  at  these  rates  year  after  year  we  see  that  some  will 
finish  the  elementary  school  in  a  httle  over  six  years,  and 
others  in  httle  short  of  ten  years,  but  all  will  have  covered 
the  same  ground. 

Instead  of  promoting  at  the  end  of  each  month,  as  is 
suggested  by  Fig.  3,  the  so-called  Cambridge  plan  Jor  grad- 
ing and  promotion,  as  shown  in  Fig.  4,  is  an  attempt  to  meet 


A 

Basal 
Course 
8  Years 

1 
1    S 

L 

3 

4 

2 

5 

6 

7 

3 

8 

9 

10 

4 

11 

12 

13 

6 

14 

15 

16 

6 

17 

18 

19 

7 

20 

21 

22 

8 

23 

B 

ParaUel 
Course 
6  Years 

1 

2 
1 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

3 

9 

10 

11 

4 

12 

13 

14 

5 

15 

16 

17 

Fig.  4.  The  Cambbidgb  Plan 
Two  parallel  elementary-school  courses,  with  one  third  more  work  assigned  for  each  year 
in  Course  B  than  in  Course  A.    Pupils  may  transfer  from  one  course  to  another  at  five 
points  without  loss.   (From  Cubberley's  Public  School  Administration.) 


136 


CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 


these  needs  by  having  a  six- 
years  course  and  an  eight-years 
course  side  by  side.  A  bright 
pupil  may  thus  finish  the  eight- 
years  course  in  six  years,  while  a 
slow  pupil  may  use  the  full  eight 
years.  It  is  also  possible  to  switch 
from  the  fast  to  the  slow  course, 
or  vice  versa,  if  such  an  adjust- 
ment is  thought  profitable.  This 
is  but  one  of  numerous  variations 
of  the  short  promotion  idea. 

The  multiple-course  plan.  In 
the  other  plan  the  correction  of 
this  unevenness  in  the  class  is 
done  only  in  part  by  redistribut- 
ing the  children,  that  is  by  pro- 
motions, the  main  plan  being  to 
provide  the  brighter  pupils  with 
additional  work.  Here  the  course 
of  study  may  be  represented  by 
grades  or  years,  as  in  Fig.  5.  Let 
the  gray  portions  of  bar  C  repre- 
sent the  work  by  years.  The 
middle  bar,  B,  will  include  the 
work  represented  by  the  C  di- 
visions, but  in  addition  a  certain 
amount  of  additional  or  supple- 
mentary work,  involving  appli- 
cation of  principles  in  a  practical 
way,  more  details,  etc.  Bar  A  will 
include  the  work  represented  by 
the  other  two  bars,  with  still 
more  work  added.  Upon  entering 


GRADING  AND  PROMOTING  1S7 

school  the  class  begins  the  work  of  the  middle  division,  but 
very  soon  must  be  divided  into  sections  A,  B,  and  C,  in- 
cluding respectively  the  superior,  the  average,  and  the  slow 
pupils.  The  teacher  will  then  carry  the  three  groups  for- 
ward, and  as  occasion  demands  she  will  move  a  child  from 
one  of  these  sections  to  another  till  the  pupil  finds  the  proper 
amount  of  work  necessary  to  occupy  his  full  time.  This 
sort  of  shifting  will  take  care  of  readjustments  or  promo- 
tions for  some  time,  still  keep  the  pupils  together  as  a  group, 
and  so  permit  them  to  remain  longer  with  one  teacher.  For 
rural  schools  it  probably  represents  the  best  grading  and 
promoting  plan.  In  time,  however,  a  few  of  the  pupils  of 
group  A  will  be  able  to  take  up  the  work  of  section  C  in  the 
next  year  above,  at  which  time  such  pupils  may  be  trans- 
ferred from  section  A  to  section  C  of  the  next  year  above, 
as  shown  in  I'ig.  5;  and  so  on,  later  group  B,  and  at  the 
end  of  the  year  group  C  will  move  to  the  next  year's  work. 

Results  under  the  multiple-course  plan.  Where  this  plan 
was  tried,  at  Santa  Barbara,  California,^  it  was  found  that 
about  10  per  cent  of  the  children  could  not  do  more  in  one 
year  than  the  minimum  amount  of  work,  as  represented  by 
division  C;  that  23  per  cent  did  ^he  work  represented  by 
division  B;  that  44  per  cent  did  that  represented  by  divi- 
sion A;  and  that  8  per  cent  did  that  represented  by  A, 
plus  that  represented  by  C  in  the  next  year  above;  and  that 
14  per  cent  did  even  more  than  this. 

The  important  feature  of  both  these  plans  of  promotion 
is  that  they  are  thoroughly  elastic.  They  provide  as  nearly 
OS  possible  for  every  child,  whatever  may  be  his  capacity 
for  work,  and  yet  no  child  works  alone.  He  is  always  in  a 
class,  competing  and  cooperating  with 'others,  and  so  dis- 

^  For  full  description  of  results  of  its  use  see  Burk,  C.  F.,  "Promotion 
of  Bright  and  Slow  Children";  in  Educational  Review,  vol.  19,  pp.  296-302 
(March,  1900). 


138  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

covering  his  own  strength  and  weakness.  These  two  plans, 
with  numerous  variations  and  combinations,  represent  the 
best  that  has  been  achieved  by  the  movement  against  the 
old  "  lockstep "  method  of  yeariy  promotions,  and  with 
the  rapid  development  of  scientific  tests  for  determining  a 
child's  abihty  there  is  reason  to  hope  that  a  system  will 
soon  be  evolved  which  will  unite  all  the  advantages  of 
individual  instruction  with  those  to  be  obtained  by  group 
work. 

5.  Promotion  by  grades  and  by  subjects 

The  old  annual  grade  promotion  plan.  The  system  of 
promotions,  which  Dr.  Wm.  T.  Harris  attacked  in  1869  to 
1874  in  his  annual  reports  as  superintendent  of  schools  in 
St.  Louis,  was  one  which  provided  but  one  chance  a  year 
for  promotion,  and  if  a  child  failed  in  one  subject,  esi>ecially 
if  that  subject  happened  to  be  arithmetic,  he  was  forced 
to  repeat  the  entire  work  of  the  year,  regardless  of  the 
need  for  it  in  other  than  the  one  subject  in  which  he  failed. 

Our  recent  studies  of  school  costs  and  individual  differ- 
ences show  how  ridiculous  this  is,  yet  in  many  schools  we 
are  still  making  promotions  upon  exactly  this  basis.  In 
the  high  school  and  in  the  college  we  have  outgrown  that 
practice.  If  a  student  in  these  schools  carrying  five  studies 
happens  to  fail  in  one  of  the  five,  he  must  repeat  that  one 
subject,  but  not  the  other  four.  The  result  is  that  in  four 
of  his  subjects  the  student  retains  his  interest,  and  also  his 
prestige  with  his  feUow  students,  whereas  under  the  old  plan 
he  would  have  been  compelled  to  drop  back  with  another 
class  younger  than  himself,  and  waste  his  time  for  a  year 
going  over  work  already  familiar  to  him. 

How  to  overcome  these  evils.  The  elementary  school  is 
beginning  to  realize  what  such  a  system  means  to  the  child 
in  lost  opportunity,  and  efforts  are  being  made  to  meet  the 


GRADING  AND  PROMOTING  139 

issue  by  various  forms  of  reorganization.  ^  With  our  more 
elastic  plans  of  promotion  the  loss  from  failure  is  corre- 
spondingly less  in  quantity,  but  remains  identical  in  other 
respects.  Why  children  pass  in  four  studies  and  fail  in  one 
or  two  may  be  due  to  wrong  emphasis,  either  in  teaching 
method,  or  in  the  organization  of  subject-matter,  or  in  time 
distribution;  or  it  may  be  due  to  the  child's  lack  of  interest 
in  certain  of  his  studies.  Certainly  we  need  standards  in  all 
these  matters,  but  this  should  not  interfere,  and  has  not 
interfered  with  other  attempts  at  solution. 

In  addition  to  the  types  of  flexibility  in  grading  outlined 
above,  three  plans  have  been  devised  for  overcoming  this 
weakness. 

First,  to  each  room  is  added  an  extra  teacher,  whose  busi- 
ness it  is  to  supervise  the  children's  study,  giving  special 
help  to  the  slow  pupils,  or  to  any  who  are  behind  in  a  given 
subject.  This  plan,  as  worked  out  at  Batavia,  New  York, 
and  known  as  the  "  Batavia  System,"  is  a  combination  of 
class  and  individual  instruction  which  is  designed  to  keep 
the  backward  pupils  up  with  their  classes  by  means  of  special 
individual  help.^ 

Second,  the  ungraded  room  has  been  provided,  when  the 
school  is  large  enough.  Under  this  plan  a  room  is  set  apart 
as  a. sort  of  teaching  hospital,  to  which  any  teacher  may 
send  a  child  for  special  work  in  any  subject.  As  soon  as  he 
has  caught  up  with  his  class  he  may  resume  his  work  with 
his  regular  teacher.  Such  rooms  are  used  to  receive  either 
slow  or  bright  children.  If  a  pupil  is  almost  ready  to  "  jump  " 
a  grade  he  is  sent  here  for  special  work  which  will  lead  up  to 
the  work  in  the  grade  above. 

*  See  especially  chapter  xvin  of  Cubberley's  Public  School  Administra- 
tion. (Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  Boston,  1916.) 

*  For  an  explanation  of  the  system  and  its  merits,  see  "The  Need  of 
Individual  Instruction,"  by  J.  Kennedy,  in  Proceedings  of  the  National 
Edwation  Association  (1901),  p.  295. 


140  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION  \ 

The  third  plan  is  that  of  promotion  by  subjects.  In  the 
elementary  school  this  plan  is  yet  in  its  infancy,  but  where 
it  has  been  tried  out  there  is  every  evidence  that  it  can  be 
accomplished  exactly  as  it  is  accomplished  in  the  high  school 
and  college.  ^  More  experiments  with  this  plan  are  needed, 
however,  in  order  to  guarantee  its  practicabiUty. 

6.  The  teacher's  'problem 

Why  teachers  should  understand  promotional  plans.  The 
teacher  who  enters  a  city  school  will  find  a  system  of  grad- 
ing  and  promotion  already  established.  The  problem  is  of 
course  in  the  main  an  administrative  problem,  but  since 
the  successful  working  of  any  such  plan  depends  ultimately 
upon  the  teacher's  ability  to  detect  its  strong  and  weak 
points  when  in  actual  operation  imder  her  own  hands,  it 
seems  necessary  that  a  work  on  school  management  should 
set  forth  as  clearly  as  p)ossible  the  principles  upon  which 
any  effective  system  must  operate.  In  the  rural  school  the 
teacher's  responsibility  is  still  greater. 

The  procedure  in  grading  and  promoting  children  is  not 
one  of  merely  watching  the  clock.  It  is  a  matter  of  using 
scientific  tests  which  require  more  than  the  ordinary  train- 
ing, a  matter  of  recognizing  individual  differences,  of  judg- 
ing what  a  given  mentality  will  be  able  to  do,  etc.  It  is 
necessary,  in  other  words,  that  a  teacher  shall  be  able  to 
recognize  the  extent  to  which  a  given  promotion  plan  is 
making  it  possible  for  every  child  to  work  up  to  the  full 
hmit  of  his  capacity  in  every  subject  every  moment  of  the 
time.    The  teacher  is  professional  in  these  respects  only 

1  See  Search,  P.  W.,  An  Ideal  School  (D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York, 
1902);  and  "The  Pueblo  Plan,"  in  Educational  Review,  vol.  vn,  pp.  154-70 
(February,  1894).  Also  Individual  Instruction.  Compiled  by  Frederick 
Burk,  President,  San  Francisco  State  Normal  School.  This  bulletin  is  a 
study  of  the  data  of  two  years'  experience  with  the  individual  system  in  the 
training  school.  ^ 


GRADING  AND  PROMOTING  141 

when  she  knows  and  can  use  the  necessary  tests,  and  is 
trained  to  judge  accurately  the  extent  to  which  a  child  is 
rightly  classified,  and  what  to  do  when  she  finds  that  he 
is  not  so  classified. 


7.  Chapter  summary 

The  object  here  has  been  to  examine  the  principles  involved  in 
the  classification  and  promotion  of  children,  on  the  assmnption 
that  group  instruction  is  not  only  necessary  for  economic  reasons, 
but  that  it  is  profitable  for  educational  reasons. 

A  perfect  system  of  grading  and  promotion  must  combine  the 
beneficial  features  of  group  instruction  with  those  of  individual 
instruction,  and  as  far  as  possible  avoid  the  evils  of  each.  This  can 
only  be  done  by  making  the  orgahization  flexible  enough  to  meet 
the  demands  of  individual  human  nature,  which  we  know  to  be 
extremely  variable. 

Investigations  of  individual  differences,  and  of  the  results  of 
school  work,  tend  to  show  that  sex,  age,  length  of  time  in  school, 
examinations,  and  the  teacher's  judgment  do  not  form  satisfactory 
bases  upon  which  to  determine  promotion,  but  that  general  intelli- 
gence and  previous  training  are  fundamental. 

To  meet  the  demands  of  individual  differences  two  types  of 
flexibility  in  grading  have  been  devised.  One  has  a  single  course 
of  study  with  frequent  promotion  periods,  the  other  has  a  variable 
course  of  study  which  cares  for  most  of  the  necessary  adjustments, 
frequent  promotions  playing  only  a  secondary  part.  Numerous 
combinations  and  variations  of  these  two  plans  have  been  used  to 
good  effect. 

Even  with  such  flexible  plans  it  is  found  that  children  are  fre- 
quently held  back  by  the  fact  that  they  fail  in  one  subject.  To 
remedy  this,  three  plans  have  been  devised :  first,  the  Batavia  plan, 
of  providing  each  room  with  a  special  teacher  for  backward  pupils; 
second,  the  ungraded  room,  to  which  children  may  be  sent  for 
special  help;  and  third,  promotion  by  subjects.  All  these  have  been 
tried  out  with  excellent  results. 

Whatever  system  may  be  devised  for  the  organization  of  children 
into  teaching  groups  it  will  be  the  teacher's  business  to  conduct 
her  room  on  that  basis.  The  teacher  should  therefore  famiHarize 
herself  both  with  the  principles  of  grading  and  promotions,  and 


142  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

with  every  detail  of  the  particular  system  under  which  she  is  to 
teach.  To  this  equipment  she  must  add  a  working  knowledge  of 
the  best  psychological  and  pedagogical  tests  of  intelligence,  knowl- 
edge, and  skill,  and  train  herself  to  detect  quickly  the  degree  of 
effectiveness  with  which  her  plans  are  serving  each  individual 
child. 

REFERENCES  FOR  ADDITIONAL  READING 

Chancellor,  W.  E.,  Class  Teaching  and  Management,  chap.  vn. 
Colgrove,  C.  P.,  The  Teacher  and  the  School,  chap.  xi. 
Cubberley,  E.  P.,  Public  School  Administration,  chap,  xviii. 
Holmes,  W.  H.,  School  Organization  and  the  Individual  Child,  pp.  11-86. 
Monroe,  W.  S.,  De  Voss,  J.  C,  and  Kelly,  F.  J.,  Educational  Tests  and 

Measurements. 
Terman,  L.  M.,  The  Measurement  of  Intelligence. 


QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  What  are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  group  instruction? 
Of  mdividual  instruction? 

2.  What  are  the  practical  difficulties  in  the  way  of  each? 

3.  How  is  the  problem  of  grading  connected  with  the  problem  of  curricu- 
lum making,  and  with  that  of  promotions? 

4.  Enumerate  all  the  possible  bases  for  grading  children.  Why  is  sex 
not  an  important  basis?  What  is  the  difference  between  chronologi- 
cal and  psychological  age?  What  is  meant  by  physiological  age,  and 
what  connection  is  it  thought  to  have  with  intelligence? 

5.  What  evidence  have  we  that  the  teacher's  judgment  is  not  an  ade- 
quate basis  for  determining  promotions? 

6.  Upon  what  basis  should  grading  and  promotion  be  determined? 
What  is  meant  by  intelligence  quotient  (I  Q)  ? 

7.  How  can  we  measure  intelligence,  and  what  is  the  best  way  to  measure 
the  amount  and  kind  of  knowledge  and  skill  a  child  possesses? 

8.  How  do  children  vary  with  respect  to  intelligence  and  how  do  these 
variations  reveal  themselves  in  the  results  of  study? 

9.  What  are  some  of  the  practical  difficulties  in  the  way  of  applying  these 
tests  as  bases  of  promotion? 

10.  What  is  meant  by  flexibility  in  grading  children?  Describe  the  two 
plans  suggested  for  providing  such  flexibility.  What  improvement 
do  these  schemes  afford  over  the  old  method  of  annual  promotions? 

11.  Suppose  a  child  would  do  passing  work  in  all  his  classes  except  arith- 
metic; would  you  have  him  repeat  all  the  work  of  that  grade?  If  so, 
what  do  you  think  the  actual  educational,  social,  and  moral  conse^ 


GRADING  AND  PROMOTING  143 

quence  would  be  for  the  child?  If  not,  what  possible  plans  have  been 
devised  for  permitting  him  to  continue  in  all  his  studies,  and  still  re- 
view his  work  in  arithmetic? 

12.  What  diflSculties  do  you  see  in  the  way  of  individual  promotions  by 
subject? 

13.  How  can  the  rural  teacher  overcome  some  of  the  obstacles  to  grading 
her  pupils  according  to  plans  suggested  above? 

14.  Why  does  a  teacher  need  to  know  something  about  individual  differ- 
ences, methods  for  measuring  general  intelligence,  pedagogical  tests, 
the  principles  involved  in  grading  and  promotion,  and  the  practical 
plans  for  carrying  out  those  principles? 

15.  Suppose  in  your  class  you  had  one  pupil  who  was  fair  in  all  his  classes 
except  reading,  and  excellent  in  that.  What  woidd  you  do?  Suppose 
by  lie  beginning  of  the  last  month  of  school  he  had  brought  all  his 
studies  up  except  history,  what  would  you  do? 


I 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE  SCHOOL  CURRICULUM 
Outline  of  Chapter 

1.  "What  a  curriculum  is  —  Curriculum  to  supplement  worid  experience  -^  Two  i 
tial  viewpoints  —  Each  study  a  means  to  a  special  end  —  The  changing  nature  of  the  cur- 
riculum —  Why  "fads"  and  "frills"  in  the  curriculum. 

2.  The  teacher's  interpretation  of  the  curriculum  —  The  curriculum  as  a  body  of  knowl- 
edge —  The  curriculum  as  a  body  of  experience  —  The  two  viewpoints  contrasted. 

3.  Socializing  and  motivating  the  curriculum  —  Meaning  of  socialized  subject-matter  — 
How  to  socialize  the  curriculum  —  Examples  in  socialization  of  studies  —  The  teacher's 
responsibility. 

4.  Types  of  subject-matter  —  Form  and  content  studies  —  Form  and  content  inseparable 
—  Poor  teaching  results  from  too  great  separation  of  the  two  —  Double  character  of  all 
studies. 

6.  The  tendency  in  curriculum -making  —  Changing  conceptions  of  education. 
6.  Summary  —  References  —  Questions. 

1.  What  a  curriculum  is 

Curriculum  to  supplement  world  experience.  The  term 
curriculiun  usually  brings  to  our  minds  a  printed  course 
of  study  or  a  collection  of  textbooks,  the  one  being  the 
directions  by  which  the  content  of  the  other  is  to  be  ad- 
ministered to  the  children.  We  tend  to  think  of  the  chUd 
and  of  the  curriculum  as  two  unrelated  objects  of  concern 
for  the  teacher,  who  assumes  it  to  be  her  function  to  bring 
the  two  together.  We  think  of  the  child  as  coming  to  school 
to  get  knowledge,  and  of  the  curriculum  as  the  knowledge 
which  he  is  to  get.  So  it  is  that  we  are  likely  to  set  the  one 
over  against  the  other. 

If,  however,  we  turn  to  oiu*  definition  of  education*  we 
are  reminded  that  to  leam  is  not  merely  to  master  the 
printed  page,  to  get  information,  but  that  it  is  to  develop, 
to  grow,  to  experience,  to  live.  It  follows  then  in  a  broad 
sense  that  whatever  enters  to  modify  the  thought  or  the 
behavior,  that  is  the  learning,  of  the  child,  is  in  so  far  a 
'  See  chap.  i. 


THE  SCHOOL  CURRICULUM  145 

part  of  his  larger  curriculum  of  life.  Forgetting  the  narrow 
work  of  the  school  then,  for  the  moment,  and  remembering 
that  the  child  is  busy  learning  wherever  he  is,  we  see  that 
the  world,  in  so  far  as  he  can  in  any  way  appropriate  it,  is 
his  curriculum.  The  world,  too,  is  not  merely  pouring  into 
his  mind,  —  he  is  also  attacking  the  world,  selecting  here 
and  rejecting  there.  He  almost  literally  carves  out  his  own 
world,  and  so  his  own  education. 

The  school,  historically  speaking,  came  in  to  supplement 
this  larger  program,  and  to  economize  this  larger  learning 
process.  Consequently  the  school  curriculum  is  scarcely 
more  than  an  incident  in  the  sum  total  of  the  child's  edu- 
cation, and  it  will  be  an  important  incident  only  if  it  in- 
cludes the  same  wide  variety  of  information  and  activities 
as  are  included  in  that  broader  curriculum  we  call  life.  All 
this  wider  knowledge  the  school  must  reduce  to  order, 
to  the  end  that  the  child  may  learn  more  rapidly  and 
effectively. 

Two  essential  viewpoints.  Two  points,  then,  are  to  be 
observed.  ¥^t,  the  curriculum  must  include  both  knowl- 
edge and  activities,  and  these  must  be  drawn  from  the 
actual  life  the  child  is  Hving,  else  they  cannot  supplement  his 
ordinary  experiences.  Second,  this  knowledge  must  be  so 
organized  that  it  will  be  approachable  for  the  child  in  the 
same  way  that  the  outside  world  is  approachable.  Other- 
wise the  child  will  not  actively  select  and  reject,  but  will 
remain  passive  with  respect  to  it.  Similarly,  the  activities 
included  in  the  curriculum  must  be  the  natural  activities 
of  children,  else  they  will  not  readily  engage  in  or  under- 
stand them. 

A  curriculum,  then,  is  not  merely  a  given  quantity  of  in- 
formation to  be  memorized  and  reproduced  by  the  child. 
If  we  think  of  the  printed  course  of  study  we  may  call  it  a 
set  of  directions  whereby  the  child  may  be  permitted  to  give 


146  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

expression  to  his  own  best  impulses  and  purpyoses,  and  to 
get  possession  of  the  kinds  of  exf>erience  and  knowledge 
which  will  make  it  possible  for  him  to  understand  the  past, 
and  to  enter  into  the  civilization  of  the  present  and  future. 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  we  think  of  what  this  outline  or  printed 
course  stands  for,  we  must  think  of  the  whole  of  life,  — 
physical,  intellectual,  social  and  moral,  sesfchetic,  and  eco- 
nomic. Not  of  mere  information  about  these,  but  of  in- 
formation plus  actual  experience  in  them. 

Each  study  a  means  to  a  special  end.  If  we  examine  the 
diflFerent  studies  with  this  broader  fimction  of  the  curricu- 
lum in  mind,  we  will  see  that  each  study  is  essentially  a 
means  by  which  the  true  meaning  of  education  and  the  fun- 
damental aims  of  the  school  are  to  be  reahzed.  If  we  ask  what 
are  reading,  writing,  spelling,  and  composition,  and  why  are 
they  part  of  the  curriculum,  we  at  once  see  how  life  could 
scarcely  go  on  without  them.  They  are  social  instnmaents 
or  tools  which  the  child  must  have  if  he  is  to  have  access 
to  the  past  experiences  of  the  race,  or  even  if  he  is  to  take 
part  in  ordinary  social  and  business  affairs.  Arithmetic 
is  scarcely  more  than  a  tool  in  a  similar  sense.  History  is 
taught  in  order  that  the  child  may  have  some  sort  of  tem- 
poral perspective  for  the  part  he  is  to  play  in  society;  while 
geography  and  civics  orient  him  with  respect  to  place  and 
to  present  institutional  life.  If  we  ask  the  same  questions 
about  gardening,  cooking,  sewing,  all  kinds  of  construc- 
tion work  in  paper,  leather,  wood,  metal,  etc.;  or  about 
singing,  dramatization,  story-telling,  painting,  drawing, 
modeling  in  clay,  plays,  and  games,  as  we  find  them  in  the 
elementary  school,  we  must  answer  that,  while  for  the  child 
these  are  actual  social  activities  which  appeal  to  his  natural 
impulses,  yet  from  the  standpoint  of  adult  society  they  are 
not  only  important  experiences,  but  introductory  to  fun- 
damental occupations  without  which  there  could  be  no 


THE  SCHOOL  CURRICULUM  147 

community  life.  When  we  study  language  from  the  stand- 
point of  literature,  and  drawing  and  painting  from  the 
standpoint  of  fine  art,  it  is  only  a  study  of  these  modes  or 
instruments  of  expression  from  the  point  of  view  of  their 
aesthetic  value,  as  distinct  from  that  of  their  technical  or 
industrial  value  in  community  life,  for  which  they  were 
originally  developed.^  Thus  the  curriculum  includes  be- 
havior quite  as  much  as  it  includes  knowledge,  and  each 
is  pertinent  both  to  child  nature  and  to  adult  social  needs. 

The  changing  nature  of  the  curriculum.  The  curriculum 
is  thus  a  medium  through  which  the  child  may  find  his  place 
in  the  highly  institutionalized  life  about  him,  living  through 
the  various  types  of  experiences  which  have  been  and  are 
essential  to  the  development  of  society.  By  getting  these 
experiences  he  comes  into  possession  of  the  essential  social 
tools,  reading,  writing,  number,  etc.;  gains  a  knowledge  of 
the  past  culture  which  is  so  essential  to  an  understanding 
of  the  present;  and  enters  into  the  life  of  his  own  time. 

With  such  a  function  the  curriculum  cannot  remain 
static.  The  past  extends  into  the  present,  the  present  into 
the  future,  and  each  age  has  its  own  tools,  customs,  knowl- 
edge, and  ideals,  and  interprets  the  past  in  these  terms. 
With  new  inventions,  with  the  growth  of  science  and  of  art, 
with  the  enlargement  and  increasing  complexity  of  com- 
munity life,  the  past  must  be  constantly  reinterpreted  if 
it  is  to  serve  the  present  and  anticipate  the  futiu'e.  Thus, 
at  one  time  the  study  of  history  in  our  schools  was  largely 
a  study  of  the  military  and  political  past;  now,  with  our 
industrial  development,  our  history  looks  more  to  the  eco- 
nomic and  social  past.  Similarly,  at  one  time  we  studied 
physiology  and  anatomy  from  the  standpoint  of  the  domi- 

*  For  a  fuller  explanation  of  these  meanings  for  the  different  studies  see 
"Course  of  Study,  Theory  of,"  by  John  Dewey,  in  Monroe's  Cyclopedia  oj 
Education, 


148  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

nant  scientific  movement.  This  is  now  developing  into  per- 
sonal and  social  hygiene  and  sanitation.  A  few  years  ago 
there  was  no  need  for  music  and  drawing  in  the  school  be- 
cause frontier  life  had  little  time  or  place  for  the  higher 
forms  of  art,  but  now  the  world  demands  them.  So  the 
curriculum  is  ever  changing  to  meet  the  changing  needs  of 
the  time. 

Why  "  fads  "  and  "frills"  in  the  curriculum.  We  need 
not  be  surprised,  then,  that  the  layman  and  the  antiquated 
teacher,  who  have  been  accustomed  to  think  of  the  child  as 
a  little  man  and  of  the  curriculum  as  a  body  of  knowledge, 
complain  of  "  fads  "  and  "  frills  "  in  the  curriculum.  They 
think  of  drawing,  manual  training,  basketry,  weaving,  sew- 
ing, and  cooking  as  superfluous  subjects,  when  in  fact  they 
are  designed  mainly  to  furnish  important  social  experiences 
through  which  the  child  may  grow  to  a  fuller  understanding 
of  various  occupations  which  have  been  basic  in  the  evo- 
lution of  society.  One  can  think  of  numerous  facts  and  ac- 
tivities, really  essential  to  a  modem  curriculum,  which 
would  have  been  entirely  meaningless  in  a  monastic  school 
of  the  fifteenth  century,  or  even  to  a  pioneer  rural  school 
a  half  century  ago.  The  difference  is  a  difference  in  civili- 
zations. Change,  then,  is  a  fundamental  characteristic  of 
any  curriculum  that  fulfills  its  proper  purpose. 

2.  The  teacher's  interpretation  of  the  curriculum 

The  above  has  suggested  two  widely  different  points  of 
view  from  which  the  curriculum  may  be  interpreted  by  the 
teacher.  She  may  think  of  it  purely  from  the  standpoint 
of  so  much  information  to  be  imparted;  or  she  may  thinly 
of  it  from  the  standpoint  of  the  experience  (involving  both 
information  and  activities)  essential  to  the  all-round  devel- 
opment of  the  child. 

The  curriculum  as  a  body  of  knowledge.   If  the  former 


THE  SCHOOL  CURRICULUM  149 

point  of  view  is  taken,  then  the  formal  side  of  every  study 
will  be  stressed.  Composition  will  not  mean  a  study  of 
free  and  natural  expression,  but  rather  of  grammatically- 
correct  expression.  Each  little  theme  will  be  written,  not 
eagerly  and  out  of  a  full  experience,  but  ploddingly,  to 
demonstrate  the  correct  use  of  capitals,  how  to  make  para- 
graphs, or  how  to  distinguish  narration  from  exposition  or 
description.  History  will  become  a  study  of  names,  dates, 
and  places,  instead  of  a  study  of  the  life  of  a  people. 
Physiology  will  be  a  study  of  how  the  teeth  are  constructed, 
with  due  emphasis  upon  remembering  the  words  mastica- 
tion, enamel,  dentine,  etc.,  rather  than  upon  why  the  teeth 
should  be  kept  clean  and  actual  practice  in  keeping  them 
clean.  Discipline  will  come  to  mean  keeping  the  children 
quiet,  morals  and  manners  will  be  taught  by  preaching  and 
scolding,  and  play  will  have  no  part  in  school  work.  It  will 
be  the  intellectual  alone  that  is  stressed,  with  the  greatest 
emphasis  upon  the  memory  aspect  of  intelligence  and  least 
upon  observation,  reason,  and  imagination.  The  curriculum 
will  become  an  end  instead  of  a  means,  and  the  teacher 
a  slave  to  the  printed  course  of  study. 

The  curriculum  as  a  body  of  experience.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  development  idea  should  dominate,  then  the 
teacher  will  watch  the  child  more  and  the  printed  directions 
about  the  number  of  pages  to  be  covered  less.  Nor  will 
training  of  memory  exclude  training  in  observation,  judg- 
ment, will,  imagination,  and  expression.  It  will  be  the  whole 
mental  life,  and  not  one  single  part  of  it,  that  will  be  trained. 
Nor  will  the  physical,  ethical,  and  aesthetic  sides  of  the 
child's  life  be  neglected.  Play  will  become  a  fundamental 
part  of  social  and  physical  training.  Through  basketry, 
weaving,  sewing,  modeling,  and  gardening,  the  child  will 
gradually  be  led  into  the  essential  processes  of  civilized 
society.    He  will  not  merely  read  about,  or  be  told  what 


150  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

agriculture  means,  but  through  planting  and  tilling  and 
harvesting  in  the  school  garden,  he  will  discover  man's  real 
relationship  to  the  soil.  He  wiU  not  merely  read  of  the 
great  cotton  and  woolen  industries,  but  through  weaving 
he  will  experience  something  of  their  meaning.  Reading 
will  not  be  correct  pronunciation  alone,  it  will  be  thought 
getting  and  expression.  The  curriculum  will  not  merely 
provide  for  some  lessons  on  digestion,  but  through  cooking 
and  a  study  of  foods  and  how  to  care  for  them,  through  wash- 
ing dishes  and  serving  meals,  it  will  bring  the  knowledge 
of  digestion  to  bear  upon  the  practical  problems  of  health 
and  development.  Civics  will  not  be  studied  so  much  from 
books  as  from  streets,  offices,  industries,  and  pubhc  places. 
The  curriculum  will  not  be  an  end,  but  only  a  means.  It 
wiU  not  be  all-inclusive,  it  will  only  serve  to  point  the  way. 
The  two  viewpoints  contrasted.  In  the  one  case  the  cur- 
riculum is  viewed  solely  from  the  standpoint  of  that  knowl- 
edge which  adult  society  demands  that  each  of  its  mem- 
bers shall  possess.  In  the  other  case  it  is  viewed  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  process  by  which  the  young,  immature, 
impulsive  child  comes  into  possession  of  the  knowledge  and 
experience  essential  to  membership  in  society.  In  the  for- 
mer the  child  learns  mainly  from  books,  in  the  latter  from 
books  plus  experience.  Thus  the  teacher's  interpretation  of 
the  curriculum,  whether  it  be  conscious  and  studied,  or 
merely  inherited  as  a  tradition,  becomes  her  working  phil- 
osophy in  school. 

5.  Socializing  and  motivating  the  curriculum 

Meaning  of  socialized  subject-matter.  To  apply  this 
second  interpretation  to  the  curriculum  means  to  socialize 
and  to  motivate  the  work  of  the  school.  A  subject  is  social- 
ized when  the  knowledge  it  contains  bears  intimately  upon 
the  child's  contacts  with  the  physical  and  social  world 


THE  SCHOOL  CURRICULUM  151 

about  him,  and  when  it  can  be  promptly  converted  into 
active  experience  with  one  or  another  aspect  of  that  world. 
It  is  motivated  when  it  is  selected  and  organized  with  re- 
spect to  the  child's  native  interests  and  his  immediate  con- 
tacts with  life  about  him. 

How  to  socialize  the  curriculum.  How  to  make  such  a 
curriculum,  or  how  to  reshape  a  traditional  curriculum  to 
these  ends,  is  the  vital  point  at  which  this  whole  question 
becomes  a  practical  issue  with  the  teacher  and  principal. 
In  order  to  do  this  the  teacher  must  keep  in  mind  not  the 
textbook  alone,  but  also  the  points  at  which  the  materials 
within  the  text  connect  up  with  the  outside  world  and  with 
the  natural  spontaneous  activities  of  children.  The  child  is 
continually  deaUng  with  quantitative  aspects  of  his  environ- 
ment, social,  physical,  and  economic,  and  his  arithmetic 
lessons  should  not  be  left  to  find  their  own  connection  with 
this  experience. 

This  does  not  mean  that  the  course  in  arithmetic  will 
discard  the  necessary  memory  work  involved  in  mastering 
the  number  combinations,  but  it  does  mean  that  it  will  in- 
volve the  kind  of  experience  with  numbers  that  will  help 
the  child  to  a  new  way  of  looking  at  the  world  about  him, 
and  to  facility  in  some  very  essential  social  processes.  The 
child  may  learn  all  the  tables  of  measure  there  are  in  his 
text,  and  work  the  problems,  but  until  he  has  fairly  con- 
verted these  standards  or  units  of  measure  into  a  language 
they  are  not  sociaHzed,  but  are  held  in  his  memory  as  so 
much  verbiage  or  so  many  bare  symbols  and  rules. 

Examples  in  socialization  of  studies.  On  the  way  to 
school  the  child  sees  a  snake,  a  squirrel,  and  a  busy  ant  hill, 
and  the  flowers  he  brings  were  found  at  a  certain  place  on 
the  roadside.  Here  he  has  an  abundance  of  material  for  a 
splendid  oral  or  written  language  lesson.  But  when  he  goes 
to  write  he  cannot  say  how  long  the  snake  was,  how  far 


15«  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

from  the  Kttle  bridge  he  found  it,  how  far  he  watched  it 
run  before  it  entered  a  hole;  he  cannot  tell  how  high  up  the 
squirrel  was  in  the  tree;  the  dimensions  of  the  ant  hill,  or 
how  many  minutes  it  took  to  gather  the  flowers,  though 
these  would  all  be  vital  points  in  the  story;  and  all  because 
the  inches,  feet,  yards,  seconds,  and  minutes  of  the  arith- 
metic had  not  been  made  to  do  their  proper  work  outside 
of  class.  Again  he  learns  the  number  of  cents,  nickels, 
dimes,  and  quarters  in  a  dollar,  but  is  much  embarrassed 
when  he  attempts  to  make  change  at  a  coimter. 

To  socialize  and  motivate  arithmetic  the  teacher  must 
force  numbers  into  action  in  connection  with  all  kinds  of 
exp>eriences,  not  only  for  the  sake  of  extending  the  child's 
knowledge  of  number,  but  also  for  the  sake  of  facilitating 
expression,  for  the  sake  of  the  new  mode  of  appreciation 
it  affords,  and  for  the  sake  of  more  accurate  thinking  where 
number  is  involved. 

The  teacher's  responsibility.  A  printed  course  of  study 
or  a  text  can  scarcely  be  large  enough  to  give  specific  direc- 
tions for  so  many  details,  nor  can  the  maker  of  texts  and 
courses  know  in  advance  the  thousand  particular  oppor- 
tunities the  teacher  is  going  to  have  with  a  given  group  of 
children  in  a  given  community  for  socializing  and  moti- 
vating the  work  in  arithmetic.  This  is  very  largely  the 
teacher's  problem.  She  must  discover  the  opportunity  and 
the  material  to  work  with.  If  necessary,  she  should  note 
down  from  day  to  day  typical  situations  in  which  children 
find  a  real  use  for  quantitative  expression.  This  practice 
will  not  only  accumulate  the  richest  kind  of  supplemen- 
tary material  for  arithmetic,  but  it  will  train  tlie  teacher 
in  a  type  of  observation  that  is  highly  important  in  all  her 
teaching. 

What  is  true  of  arithmetic  is  equally  true  of  other  sub- 
jects'.   Most  homes  contain  newspapers,  magazines,  and 


THE  SCHOOL  CURRICULUM  15S 

books,  and  the  opportunity  for  developing  interest  in  read- 
ing is  almost  unlimited  if  the  teacher  is  on  the  alert.  How 
much  more  the  lessons  in  civics  would  mean  if  the  thou- 
sands of  county  court-houses,  city  halls,  state  capitals, 
police,  street,  and  fire  departments  were  converted  into 
laboratories  for  our  schools.  These  are  but  a  few  illustra- 
tions of  what  it  means  to  socialize  and  motivate  the  course 
of  study,  but  these  are  enough  to  suggest  reasons  for  put- 
ting the  newer  studies  into  the  curriculum,  and  to  con- 
vince the  teacher  that  even  after  these  studies  are  included, 
success  still  depends  very  largely  upon  the  materials  she 
brings  in  to  supplement  the  text  and  connect  the  subject 
in  a  vital  way  with  life  outside  the  school. 

^.   Types  of  subject-matter 

Form  and  content  studies.  In  the  past  the  studies  of  the 
curriculum  have  been  divided  into  two  groups,  called  re- 
spectively form  and  content  studies.  Form  studies  include 
reading,  writi/ig,  spelling,  arithmetic,  and  grammar;  while 
geography,  history,  literatm-e,  civics,  and  physiology  are 
commonly  classed  as  content  subjects.  In  the  form  studies 
the  emphasis  is  placed  upon  the  mastery  of  formal  rules  and 
symbols.  The  form  of  the  letter  or  word  in  spelling,  read- 
ing, and  writing,  the  formula  or  rule  or  law  in  mathematics 
and  grammar,  have  to  be  learned.  In  the  content  subjects 
there  is  Uttle  time  spent  on  the  mastery  of  symbols  and 
rules  as  such.  Here  the  idea  is  to  get  at  the  facts  for  which 
the  combined  symbols  stand. 

Form  and  content  inseparable.  Such  a  division  of  sub- 
ject-matter may  be  of  use  in  helping  the  teacher  to  think 
more  clearly  about  the  specific  teaching  problems  with  which 
she  is  working  at  a  given  time,  but  there  is  a  genuine  danger 
in  thus  separating  two  things  so  organically  united  as  are 
form  and  content  in  the  course  of  study,  or  in  a  given  sub- 


154  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

ject.  We  only  have  to  try  to  imagine  what  value  one  would 
have  without  the  other  in  order  to  feel  the  force  of  their 
intimate  relationship.  Historically,  bare  symbols  arose 
only  as  they  were  needed  to  convey  ideas  to  others,  and 
language  came  before  grammatical  rules,  yet  science  and 
mathematics  have  reached  their  high  stages  of  develop- 
ment only  because  symbols,  rules,  and  principles  have 
made  it  possible  to  think  clearly  in  the  midst  of  vast  quan- 
tities of  facts.  Thus,  while  experience  (content)  precedes 
the  use  of  symbols  and  the  formulation  of  rules  (form),  yet 
each  is  essential  to  the  other,  and  they  should  not  consti- 
tute a  dualism  in  curriculum  making. 

When  teaching  writing,  grammar,  spelling,  and  arith- 
metic the  teacher  should  keep  this  relationship  firmly  in 
mind  as  a  further  reason  that  her  subject-matter  should  be 
thoroughly  socialized  and  motivated.  This  will  not  do 
away  with  the  necessity  for  drill  in  writing,  spelling,  arith- 
metic, etc.,  but  it  will  lay  emphasis  upon  the  idea  of  unity 
in  the  curriculum  as  a  whole.  Then  spelling  lessons  will  be 
frequently  drawn  from  the  composition  work  and  from 
other  studies.  Language  lessons  wiU  find  their  content  in 
natiu-e  study,  history,  civics,  games,  and  plays;  the  reading 
lesson  may  frequently  be  drawn  from  the  history,  the  daily 
paper,  or  the  composition  lesson;  and  the  number  lessons 
will  go  into  action  in  manual  training,  domestic  science, 
and  composition. 

Poor  teaching  results  from  too  great  separation  of  the  two, 
The  abuses  that  come  from  an  undue  separation  of  form 
and  content  need  only  to  be  suggested.  It  is  often  assumed 
that  reading,  for  instance,  is  entirely  a  form  subject.  This 
explains  why  the  selection  of  subject-matter  for  beginners 
is  often  made  on  the  basis  of  length  of  words,  rather  than 
on  the  basis  of  the  meaning  the  words  may  convey  to  the 
child.   It  explains,  too,  why  some  "  systems "  of  teaching 


THE  SCHOOL  CURRICULUM  155 

reading  are  wholly  phonetic  and  mechanical,  and  why, 
until  recent  years,  even  pupils  in  the  advanced  grades 
studied  one  single  reading  text  filled  with  scraps  of  moral 
philosophy,  the  virtue  of  the  book  depending  upon  the  diffi- 
culty of  the  words  and  sentences,  and  upon  the  formal 
moral  teaching  it  contained.  Similarly,  the  spellers  were 
full  of  rules  about  the  final  e  of  primitive  words,  etc.,  fol- 
lowed by  a  list  of  words  illustrating  the  rule,  and  other  lists 
illustrating  the  numerous  exceptions.  We  are  gradually 
learning  that  such  a  separation  of  form  and  content  in 
spelling  does  not  produce  good  spellers.  ^ 

Li  the  older  arithmetic  textbooks  every  new  subject, 
from  notation  to  cube  root,  was  preceded  by  a  rule  covering 
the  examples  to  be  worked.  This  rule  was  committed  to 
memory.  That  was  one  task.  Then  it  was  applied  in  a  list 
of  problems.  That  was  a  second  task,  only  a  little  less  mean- 
ingless than  the  first  one.  But  the  trouble  had  only  begun, 
for  since  the  rule  and  the  problem  were  entirely  unrelated 
to  the  child's  actual  experience,  he  must  find  some  kind  of 
artificial  method  of  remembering  them.  Here  is  where  the 
old-time  schoolmaster  flourished  his  ferrule  and  insisted 
upon  his  doctrine  of  repetition,  repetition,  repetition. 

Double  character  of  all  studies.  Such  an  attempt  to  treat 
these  subjects  as  though  they  had  no  content  is  only  slightly 
more  ridiculous  than  to  assume  that  history,  nature  study, 
geography,  manual  training  and  music  have  no  form.  We 
cannot  discard  names  and  dates  in  history,  nor  places  in 
geography,  nor  can  we  study  nature  without  some  system 
of  classification  for  the  objects  we  deal  with.  The  classifica- 
tions of  trees,  birds,  plants,  and  land  forms  «re  based  upon 
fundamental  principles  which  have  to  be  mastered  as  we 
proceed  with  the  study. 

*  See  Cook  and  O'Shea,  The  Child  and  His  Spelling,  chap,  n,  for  the 
results  of  an  investigation  of  this  subject. 


156  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

The  danger  is  that  we  shall  try  to  master  the  system  of 
classification  apart  from  the  things  it  classifies,  or  else  go 
to  the  other  extreme  of  ignoring  dates,  names,  and  principles, 
to  the  end  that  the  child  gets  the  merest  smattering  of  un- 
related facts.  There  is  a  great  deal  of  the  formal  in  arith- 
metic, and  a  great  deal  of  content  in  geography,  but  arith- 
metic is  not  without  content  and  geography  is  not  without 
form.  And  while  the  teacher  should  see  her  problem  clearly, 
as  dealing  specifically  with  the  one  or  the  other  at  a  given 
moment,  she  must  always  keep  that  broader  perspective 
which  sees  each  as  a  single  aspect  of  the  larger  whole  in 
which  both  appear  in  proper  relationship. 

5.  The  tendency  in  curriculum-making 

Changing  conceptions  of  education.  The  curriculum  of 
to-day  is  much  richer  in  content  material  and  far  less  formal 
than  was  the  curriculum  of  even  a  decade  ago.  The  idea 
that  because  a  subject  is  useful  it  is  therefore  not  educative 
has  about  disappeared,  with  the  result  that  the  modem 
curriculum  provides  for  a  rich  and  varied  experience  in 
almost  every  conceivable  line.  Through  dramatization, 
plays,  games,  and  caHsthenics,  and  through  practical  work 
in  personal  hygiene,  the  child's  physical  development  is 
being  provided  for;  through  civics,  the  study  of  pubhc  sani- 
tation, and  history,  as  well  as  through  play  and  cooperative 
work  in  field  and  laboratory,  the  moral  and  social  side  is 
being  cared  for;  through  music,  drawing,  painting,  and  hand- 
work, aesthetic  training  is  provided;  while  through  cooking, 
sewing,  manual  training,  designing,  agriculture,  and  garden- 
ing, the  child  receives  a  useful  introduction  to  home  making 
and  to  numerous  basic  occupations  and  economic  and  social 
processes. 

The  subject-matter  of  the  older  subjects  is  being  sifted 
more  and  more  to  meet  these  broader  aims  of  the  school 


THE  SCHOOL  CURRICULUM  157 

so  that  one  may  say  that  the  curriculum  of  to-morrow 
promises  to  be  very  true  to  real  life.  Training  for  the  eyes, 
the  ears,  the  hands,  the  reason,  the  imagination,  as  well  as 
for  the  memory,  and  this  as  much  from  real  experience  as 
from  the  printed  page,  characterize  the  new  curriculum. 

6.  Chapter  summary 

The  purpose  of  this  chapter  has  been  to  explain  the  real  function 
and  character  of  subject-matter,  or  the  curriculum.  Such  an 
understanding  is  necessary  if  instruction  is  to  be  managed  to  a 
proper  end. 

Two  opposing  viewpoints  —  one  inherited  from  the  past,  the 
other  a  recent  development  of  scientific  study  —  have  been  strug- 
gling for  control  in  our  schools.  The  one  looks  upon  the  course  of 
study  as  an  end,  while  the  other  regards  it  as  only  a  means.  One 
emphasizes  the  formal,  the  other  the  functional  aspect  of  the  knowl- 
edge and  skills  to  be  imparted.  The  one  insists  upon  learning  rules 
and  principles  as  such,  the  other  upon  learning  these  in  their  real 
applications.  These  points  of  view  are  irreconcilable,  and  in  the 
light  of  modern  thought  the  former  must  yield  its  place  to  the 
latter. 

This  means  that  the  curriculum  will  come  to  be  defined  in  terms 
of  social  and  psycnological  need  as  opposed  to  tradition,  and  that 
it  will  be  organized  in  terms  of  psychological  and  pedagogical  prin- 
ciples rather  than  in  terms  of  the  bare  logic  of  subject-matter 
itself.  It  means  that  the  teacher  will  draw  upon  the  social  and 
physical  life  about  her  for  materials  to  enrich  her  studies;  that  she 
will  not  interpret  form  as  having  no  connection  with  content;  and 
that  the  curriculum  will  be  constantly  remade  in  terms  of  changing 
locial  needs. 

REFERENCES  FOR  ADDITIONAL  READING 

Colgrove,  C.  P.,  The  Teacher  and  the  School,  chap.  rx. 

Cubberley,  E.  P.,  Changing  Conceptions  of  Education. 

Dewey,  John,  Schools  of  To-morrow,  chap.  rv^. 

McMurry,  F.  M.,  Elementary  School  Standards,  chaps,  vni  and  DE. 

Any  typioEil  State  and  city  courses  of  study. 


158  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 


QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Re-read  chapter  i,  and  then  try  to  answer  the  following  questions:  — • 

a.  Mention  ways  in  which  your  own  elementary  school  curriculum 
supplemented  your  experience  outside  of  school. 

b.  Were  activities  —  plays,  games,  folk  dancing,  dramatization, 
music,  and  handwork,  such  as  sewing,  gardening,  drawing,  etc., 
stressed  more  or  less  than  study  from  the  printed  page? 

c.  Did  your  curriculmn  give  you  any  information  about,  or  any 
experience  in: — ^how  to  meet  people  in  a  business  way,  in  a 
social  way;  how  to  offer  your  services  to  a  stranger  in  need  of 
help;  public  or  civic  duties  in  matters  of  sanitation,  public  oflSce, 
community  library,  park,  playground,  celebrations,  the  care  of 
public  property;  propriety  in  dress,  or  propriety  in  conduct  on 
the  street  and  in  public  places;  the  value  of  money,  public  enter- 
prise, paying  taxes,  etc.?  If  so,  in  connection  with  what  studies? 

d.  Classify  the  studies  you  took  under  the  school  aims  discussed  in 
diapter  one.  What  studies  can  properly  be  placed  under  more 
than  one  of  these  aims? 

2.  What  is  meant  by  a  Static  curriculum?  In  what  sense  is  change 
essential  to  the  curriculum. 

3.  Mention  some  changes  that  have  taken  place  in  the  American  ele- 
mentary school  curriculum  which  reveal  fundamental  social  changes 
in  American  life. 

4.  What  of  the  newer  studies  would  a  strictly  informational  type  of 
curriculum  ignore?  What  is  the  objection  to  such  a  curriculum?  Are 
the  different  studies  in  such  a  curriculum  likely  to  be  carefully  corre- 
lated? 

5.  What  is  meant  by  socializmg  and  motivating  the  curriculum?  What 
is  the  teacher's  responsibility  in  the  matter? 

6.  What  is  meant  by  form  and  content  subjects?  Distinguish  form  from 
content  in.  reading,  arithmetic,  civics,  geography? 

7.  What  advantage  is  there  for  the  teacher  in  such  a  division  of  subject- 
matter?  What  are  the  dangers  of  such  a  separation? 

8.  Explain  how  the  course  in  geography  might  be  taught  largely  as  a 
formal  subject.  Distinguish  form  and  content  in  music,  drawing,  and 
domestic  science. 

9.  Through  what  studies  would  you  expect  a  child  to  obtain  training  in 
observation,  memory,  imagination,  reasoning,  senses  of  touch,  hear- 
ing, and  sight? 

10.  How  would  you  aim  to  supplement  the  ordinary  curriculum  to  obtain 
the  ends  suggested  in  question  9? 

11.  In  what  way  would  you  expect  the  course  in  history  to  supplement  that 
in  geography? 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE  DAILY  PROGRAM 

Outline  of  Chapter 

1.  Organizing  the  day's  work  —  The  problem  stated  —  Principles  involved  in  pregram^ 
making  —  The  time  av£ulable  —  Number  of  recitation  and  study  periods  —  The  allotment 
of  time  —  Time  allotment  in  representative  American  cities  —  The  order  of  studies  —  The 
problem  of  fatigue  —  Rules  concerning  work  and  rest  —  Deductions  from  the  study  of 
fatigue  —  The  arrangement  of  recreation  periods. 

2.  Typical  programs  —  A  proper  program  —  A  three-class  program  —  Program  for  a 
mral  school. 

S.  How  to  use  the  program. 

4.  Summary  —  References  —  Questions. 

1.  Organizing  the  day's  work 

The  problem  stated.  The  organization  of  the  movements 
of  children  and  of  the  handUng  of  materials  is  much  simpler 
than  is  the  organization  of  the  day's  work.  Once  the  chil- 
dren are  graded  and  classified,  and  the  course  of  study  out- 
lined, we  have  then  to  decide  that  perplexing  question  of 
the  relative  value  of  studies,  and  to  determine  the  order  in 
which  they  shaU  be  dealt  with  in  the  study  and  recitation 
periods  of  the  day.  Nor  is  it  merely  an  academic  question 
of  which  is  the  more  important,  geography  or  spelling,  but 
just  how  important  is  each  as  measured  by  the  amount  of 
time  it  is  to  consume. 

Principles  involved  in  program-making.  In  making  out 
this  program  there  are  certain  factors  to  be  dealt  with,  and 
certain  prindples  to  be  kept  in  mind:  These  may  be  sum- 
marized as  follows :  — 

1.  There  is  so  much  subject-matter  in  each  course  to  be  covered 
in  a  given  time,  from  which  one  can  estimate  the  approxi- 
mate amount  to  be  covered  each  week  and  each  day. 

2.  There  is  the  number  of  classes  or  recitations  to  be  heard  each 
day,  from  which,  with  the  amount  of  available  time,  one  may 
compute  the  average  time  which  can  be  devoted  to  each  classr 


160  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

3.  There  is  the  relative  value  of  each  recitation  or  study,  to  be 
decided  upon  as  a  basis  for  determining  which  studies  shall 
have  more  and  which  less  than  the  average  time  allotment. 

4.  There  is  the  order  in  which  each  lesson  shall  be  studied  and 
recited,  to  be  determined  by  the  relative  difficulty  of  the 
studies,  as  shown  by  the  tendency  of  each  to  fatigue  the 
child. 

5.  There  is  the  general  problem  of  the  distribution  of  the  child's 
energy  throughout  the  day. 

6.  Then  there  is  the  division  of  the  day  into  work  and  recreation 
periods,  to  be  determined  by  the  influence  of  recreation  upon 
keeping  the  child's  energy  at  a  high  state  of  efficiency. 

The  time  available.  The  teacher  will  usually  have  from 
twenty-eight  to  forty  weeks  of  time  in  which  to  complete 
the  work  outlined  for  the  year,  and  each  school  day  is  in 
most  places  five  hours  in  length,  beginning  at  9  a.  m.  and 
closing  at  3  p.  M.  A  six-hour  school  day,  from  9  a.  m.  to  4  p.m., 
also  is  frequently  found,  especially  in  rural  schools.  The 
tendency  in  this  country  seems  to  be  to  lengthen  the  school 
year,  but  to  shorten  the  day,  the  latter  particularly  for  the 
earlier  grades.  However,  with  the  increasing  emphasis  upon 
supervised  play,  and  upon  field  and  laboratory  work,  it  is 
quite  likely  that  the  school  day  will  tend  to  grow  longer 
rather  than  shorter  in  the  future.  ^  The  day  is  ordinarily 
divided  into  four  work  periods  of  approximately  equal 
length,  the  forenoon  and  the  afternoon  each  being  broken 
by  a  fifteen-minute  rest  period,  and  with  an  hour  to  an  hour 
and  fifteen  minutes*  rest  at  noon.  There  are  numerous  vari- 
ations from  this  to  meet  the  needs  of  special  cases,  such  as 
increasing  the  number  of  recreation  periods  for  the  younger 
and  for  physically  defective  children,  of  doing  away  with 
the  recess  periods  for  the  upper  grades,  etc. 

Deducting  at  least  an  hour  and  a  half  for  rest  we  have 
left  in  a  six-hour  day  two  periods  of  ninety  minutes  each, 

1  The  Gary,  Indiana,  plan  probably  indicates  the  tendency  of  the  futuie. 


THE  DAILY  PROGRAM  101 

and  two  periods  of  seventy-five  minutes  each  in  which  to 
plan  for  the  necessary  number  of  daily  recitations.  The  time 
is  very  close  at  hand  when  we  shall  cease  to  speak  of  these 
rest  periods  as  if  they  contained  nothing.  These  periods  are 
coming  to  be  more  and  more  definitely  programed  in  our 
best  managed  schools,  to  the  end  that  all  children  engage  in 
some  kind  of  free  play  that  not  only  rests  and  refreshes  them 
physically  and  mentally,  but  gives  them  important  social 
and  executive  training  as  well. 

Number  of  recitation  and  study  periods.  The  number  of 
recitations  the  teacher  will  have  during  the  day  will  depend, 
first  of  all,  upon  the  number  of  grades  in  her  room.  The 
larger  city  or  consolidated  rural  school  will  have  but  one 
grade  in  a  room,  while  the  one-room  school  will  probably 
have  eight.  The  time  schedule  for  a  room  containing  but 
one  grade,  divided  into  two  sections  a  half  year  apart  in 
their  studies,  is  not  diflBcult  to  arrange,  but  with  eight  grades 
present  the  problem  is  extremely  complex.  In  the  one  case 
the  teacher  will  have  plenty  of  time  to  hear  the  necessary 
recitations,  ana  to  supervise  much  of  the  study,  while  in 
the  other  she  will  be  busy  practically  the  entire  time  with 
recitations  alone.  The  writer  has  before  him  two  daily  pro- 
grams now  in  use,  one  by  a  teacher  of  a  single  sixth  grade, 
the  other  by  a  teacher  of  all  eight  grades.  The  one  conducts 
nine,  the  other  thirty-six  recitations  each  day.  It  is  obvious 
that  these  two  teachers  cannot  give  equal  care  and  atten- 
tion to  the  supervision  of  study.  One  of  these  teachers  has 
an  average  of  more  than  thirty-six  and  the  other  less  than 
ten  minutes  for  each  recitation. 

The  allotment  of  time.  The  daily  program  contains  three 
main  divisions:  study,  recitation,  and  recreation.  If  recrea- 
tion consumes  an  hoiu"  and  a  half,  then  in  the  six  hours  from 
9  A.  M.  to  3  p.  M.  there  are  left  four  and  a  half  hours  for  study 
and  recitation.  The  question  of  how  to  divide  the  time 


16g  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

between  these  two  activities  will  depend  partly  upon  the 
practical  diflSculties  to  be  overcome  in  working  out  the 
program,  but  as  far  as  possible  it  should  depend  upon  the 
nature  of  the  work  to  be  done,  and  the  need  for  supervision 
of  the  study. 

Aside  from  the  help  given  in  a  careful  assignment  of  the 
lesson  the  child  will  need  very  Httle  supervision  over  his 
study  of  spelling.  The  same  is  not  true,  however,  of  natm-e 
study,  theme  writing,  or  geography.  If  the  teacher  has  any 
time  available  for  the  supervision  of  study  therefore  she 
should  plan  as  far  as  possible  to  have  it  at  a  time  when 
supervision  is  needed.  This  is  also  easy  to  work  out  in  a 
room  with  but  one  or  two  classes,  and  next  to  impossible  in 
one  of  many  classes. 

Time  allotment  in  representative  American  cities.  Some 
studies  will  properly  require  more  time  both  for  study  and 
for  recitation  than  others,  first,  because  some  are  more 
important  than  others,  and  second,  because  some  are  more 
difficult  to  master  than  others.  While  there  is  no  way  of 
saying  exactly  how  much  more  time  should  be  spent  on 
English  than  on  mathematics  in  a  second-grade  class,  we 
know  roughly  that  the  EngHsh  training  at  that  age  is  rela- 
tively more  important,  and  that  it  should  have  a  relatively 
larger  share  of  the  time.  The  best  basis  we  have  upon  which 
to  decide  this  question  is  the  consensus  of  opinion  as  ex- 
pressed in  practice.  The  table  on  page  163,  computed  from  a 
study  of  time  distributions  by  subjects  and  grades  in  rep- 
resentative cities  in  the  United  States,  shows  roughly  the 
average  number  of  minutes  per  week  devoted  to  each  sub- 
ject in  each  grade  in  fifty  cities. 

An  investigation  of  time  allotment  in  the  subject  of  arith- 
metic alone,  covering  six  hundred  and  thirty  cities,^  tends 

*  Jessup,  W.  A.,  "  Current  Practices  and  Standards  in  Arithmetic,"  The 
Fourteenth  Year  Book  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Stvdy  of  Education, 
pt.  I.,  1915,  chap.  vm. 


THE  DAILY  PROGRAM 


16S 


Distribution  of  Time  by  Subjects  and  by  Grades  in 
Fifty  Cities  ^ 


Minuies  per 
v>eek  devoted  U 


Opening  exercises 

Reading 

Language 

Spelling 

Penmanship 

Arithmetic 

Geography 

History 

Science 

Drawing 

Music . 

Manual  training . 
Physical  training. 

Recess 

Miscellaneous . . . . 


Grade 


59 

412 
116 

83 

77 

93 
25 

42 
57 

151 

70 

65 

71 

135 

118 


II       III 


59 

364 
122 
102 


149 
11 
48 
63 

84 

130 

73 

63 

128 


59 

291 

145 

113 

81 

203 
77 
54 
62 

87 
73 
62 
62 
128 
135 


IV 


54 

237 
164 
103 

82 

231 

128 

88 

57 

82 
74 
70 
62 
119 
119 


195 

179 

94 

77 

223 

157 

103 

53 

77 
70 
77 
59 
113 
122 


VI       VII     VIII 


48 

181 

182 
9C 
73 

226 

166 

110 

62 

77 
70 
88 
62 
108 
122 


48 

151 

207 

81 

60 

217 

151 

141 

70 

77 

70 

112 

59 

102 

102 


48 

150 

220 

79 

57 

220 
118 
181 


76 

76 

115 

60 

102 

135 


*  Henry  W.  Holmes  m  The  Fourteenth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of 
Educatim,  pt.  i  (1915). 

to  show  that  the  cities  included  in  the  above  table  average 
high  in  the  proportion  of  time  devoted  to  arithmetic.  It 
must  be  understood  that  this  table  is  only  suggestive  at 
best  as  to  what  constitutes  a  proper  time  allotment.  The 
wide  variabihty  in  practice  in  different  schools  in  the  same 
city  is  astonishing  to  those  who  have  investigated  the  sub- 
ject, and  shows  how  far  we  are  as  yet  from  a  scientific  time 
schedule.  1 

1  See  Sears,  J.  B.,  "Time  Allotment  in  the  Schools  of  Salt  Lake  City," 
in  Educational  Administration  and  Supervision  (March,  1916),  for  a  full 
discussion  of  this  variability,  and  for  a  complete  bibliography  of  the 
investigations  to  date. 


i 


164  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

The  order  of  studies.  Each  child's  program  will  contain 
two  kinds  of  studies.^  It  is  obvious  that  the  formal  subjects, 
being  only  indirectly  useful,  will  be  less  interesting  than  the 
content  subjects,  and  for  that  reason  more  difficult  to  learn. 
This  would  suggest,  first,  that  form  subjects  come  at  the 
time  of  day  when  the  children  are  freshest;  second,  that 
ordinarily  one  form  subject  should  not  succeed  another  on 
the  program;  third,  that  the  recitation  period  for  form  sub- 
jects should  not  be  too  long;  and  fourth  that  the  study 
period  for  form  subjects  should  more  often  be  a  supervised 
period. 

The  problem  of  fatigue.  School  management,  especially 
in  the  organization  of  its  daily  program,  is  concerned  with 
the  problem  of  conserving  human  energy. ^  The  best  studies 
of  fatigue,  so  far,  both  from  the  standpoint  of  psychology 
and  from  that  of  physiology,  permit  us  to  say :  first,  that  the 
average  American  school  program  does  not  overburden  the 
normal  healthy  child,  except  when  work  is  conducted  under 
unhygienic  conditions.;  and  second,  that  while  fatigue  must 
not  be  carried  to  exhaustion  we  need  fear  no  harm  from 
being  tired  in  the  ordinary  sense  under  good  working  meth- 
ods and  conditions. 

Rules  concerning  work  and  rest.  The  fact,  however,  that 
average  conditions  in  our  schools  are  not  likely  to  result  in 
overwork,  and  that  we  need  to  emphasize  the  development 
of  sound  work  habits,  does  not  mean  that  we  are  to  dis- 
regard the  known  laws  of  fatigue.  The  suggestions  which 
these  laws  have  for  us  may  be  briefly  summarized  as  fol- 
lows: For  work,  the  forenoon  hours  are  more  favorable 
than  those  of  the  afternoon;  home  work  should  be  reduced 

*  For  a  discussion  of  form  and  content  studies  see  chap,  xi,  sec.  4. 

2  Offner  and  Whipple's  Mental  Fatigue  offers  in  concise  form  the  results 
of  the  best  studies  of  fatigue,  and  of  the  significance  of  fatigue  for  arranging 
the  work  of  the  school  program.  (Warwick  and  York,  Baltimore,  1911.) 


i 


THE  DAILY  PROGRAM  165 

to  a  minimum,  and  so  arranged  as  not  to  be  exacting;  short 
pauses  for  free  play  in  the  open  air  tend  greatly  to  offset 
fatigue;  pauses  should  not  interrupt  easy  and  pleasant 
work;  children  should  have  from  nine  to  eleven  hours  of 
sound  sleep,  for  sleep  is  the  best  protection  against  the 
effects  of  fatigue;  a  change  of  work,  while  not  adding  to  the 
child's  store  of  energy,  tends  to  offset  ennui;  free  play  con- 
sumes energy  but  also  stimulates  metabolism  and  acceler- 
ates the  excretion  of  waste  products;  the  school  subject  is 
often  not  so  fatiguing  as  is  the  method  by  which  the  subject 
is  taught  and  the  teacher's  personal  influence. 

Deductions  from  the  study  of  fatigue.  The  child's  energy 
seems  to  start  low  in  the  morning,  to  rise  rapidly  to  its 
highest  point  between  nine  and  ten  o'clock  in  the  morning, 
to  decline  slowly,  reaching  its  low  level  at  noon,  then  to  rise 
to  a  second  height,  slightly  lower  than  the  morning  maxi- 
mum, by  about  2  p.m.,  and  then  to  decline  to  its  lowest 
level  by  evening. 

With  these  facts  regarding  the  nature  of  the  different 
studies  and  methods  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  nature  and 
conservation  of  the  child's  energy  on  the  other,  we  would 
conclude:  — 

1.  That  the  day's  work  should  open  with  some  brief  but  inter- 
esting and  stimulating  exercise,  which  requires  little  mental 
exertion. 

2.  That  the  first  lessons  should  be  perhaps  reading  or  spelling, 
that  is,  the  simplest  of  the  formal  subjects. 

3.  That  the  next  should  likely  be  arithmetic,  the  most  difficult 
of  the  formal  studies. 

4.  That  recreation  should  follow  immediately,  or  at  least  soon 
after  arithmetic. 

5.  That  the  periods  immediately  following  the  morning  recess 
should  be  given  to  arithmetic  or  grammar. 

6.  That  writing  should  precede  rather  than  follow  a  recreation 
period. 

7.  That  the  most  difficult  of  the  remaining  studies,  say  gram- 


166  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

mar  or  history,  should  come  between  noon  and  the  second 
recess. 
8.  That  such  studies  as  nature  study,  manual  training,  domestic 
science,  etc.,  should  be  placed  later  in  the  afternoon. 

The  arrangement  of  recreation  periods.  There  should  be 
stated  recreation  periods,  as  suggested  above,  but  in  addi- 
tion it  should  be  possible  to  take  a  class  out  into  the  oi>en 
air  at  any  time,  if  circumstances  seem  to  warrant  it,  and 
this  will  not  be  so  very  infrequent  with  children  in  the  early 
grades.  The  idea  should  be  to  make  the  recreation  period 
come  at  the  time  it  is  most  needed,  and  so  arranged  as  to 
interfere  as  Uttle  as  possible  with  such  studies  as  writ- 
ing, or  drawing,  where  careful  muscular  coordinations  are 
necessary. 

2.  Typical  programs 

A  proper  program.  A  few  typical  programs  will  illustrate 
the  practical  working  of  these  principles,  to  which  we  would 
add  the  suggestion  that,  to  be  effective  for  service,  the 
program  must  reveal  at  a  glance  exactly  what  every  child 
is  supposed  to  be  doing  at  every  moment  of  the  day.  That 
means  that  the  child's  play  and  study  periods  are  quite 
as  definitely  assigned  as  are  his  recitation  periods.  With  a 
careful  explanation  at  the  outset  of  just  how  the  child  is 
to  watch  his  own  program,  and  with  proper  care  to  see 
that  it  is  followed  in  all  particulars,  the  procedure  will  soon 
become  quite  habitual. 

It  is  true  that  in  large  schools  the  principal  usually  has  a 
program  prepared,  but  it  is  also  true  that  he  will  usually 
welcome  suggestions  from  the  teacher  regarding  many  of 
the  details,  and  the  teacher  should  by  all  means  master  the 
essential  principles  of  program-making. 

A  three-class  program.  A  careful  study  of  the  program  on 
the  opposite  page  will  doubtless   show  a  few  slight  viola- 


THE  DAILY  PROGRAM  167 

Program  for  a  Room  with  Three  Classes 


Recitations 

Study 

AKD  Occupations 

Begin 

Min- 
utes 

Classes 

Grade  VA 

GradeVB 

Grade  VI A 

9:00-  9:10 

10 

Opening  Exercises— 
AU 

9:10-  9:25 

15 

Reading  — VIA 

Arithmetic 

Arithmetic 

9:25-  9:35 

10 

Arithmetic  —  V  B 

Arithmetic 

Arithmetic 

9:35-  9:50 

15 

Arithmetic  —  V  A 

Reading 

Arithmetic 

9:50-10:10 

20 

Arithmetic  — VIA 

Reading 

Reading 

10:10-10:30 

20 

Writing 

10:30-10:45 

15 

RECESS 

Play 

Play 

Play 

10:45-11:00 

15 

Reading- VB 

Reading 

History 
and  Civics 

11:00-11:15 

15 

Reading  — V  A 

History  and 
Geography 

History 
and  Civics 

11:15-11:30 

15 

History  and  Civics 
—  VIA 

Geography 

History  and 
Geography 

11:30-11:45 

15 

History  and  Geog- 
raphy 

Geography 

Grammar 

11:45-12:00 

15 

Geography  — V  A 

Language 

Grammar 

12:00-  1:00 

60 

NOON  — UiTERMIS 

SION 

1:00-  1:15 

15 

Grammar  — VI  A 

Language 

Language 

1:15-  1:30 

15 

Language  —  V  B 

Language 

Geography 

1:30-  1:45 

15 

Language  —  V  A 

Physiology 

Geography 

1:45-  2:00 

15 

Geography  —  VI  A 

Physiology 

Physiology 

2:00-  2:15 

15 

Physiology  — V  B 

Physiology 

Physiology 

2:15-  2.30 

15 

Music  and  Physical 
Culture 

2:30-  2:45 

15 

RECESS 

Play 

Play 

Play 

2:45-  3:00 

15 

Physiology 

Spelling 

Physiology 

3:00-  3:15 

15 

Physiology  — VIA 

Spelling 

Spelling 

3:15-  3:25 

10 

Spelling -V  B 

Spelling 

Spelling 

3:25-  3:35 

10 

Spelling- V  A 

Arithmetic 

Spelling 

3:35-  3:45 

10 

Spelling  — VI  A 

Reading 

Arithmetic 

3:45-  4:00 

15 

Drawing 

168  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

tions  of  some  of  our  principles,  as  in  the  case  of  asking  grade 
V  B  to  study  arithmetic  at  3.15  p.m.  In  the  main,  how- 
ever, it  represents  a  fairly  good  distribution  of  time  and  a 
fairly  good  order  of  subjects.  Spelling  might  with  propriety 
precede  the  arithmetic  work  early  in  the  morning,  ending 
the  day  with  science. 

In  some  cases  certain  alternations  of  subjects  would  be 
necessary.  Perhaps  the  Monday,  Wednesday,  and  Friday 
drawing  periods  might  be  devoted  to  domestic  science  and 
manual  training.  Physiology  and  natiu-e  study,  if  treated 
as  separate  subjects,  might  alternate  in  a  similar  way;  and 
likewise  history  and  geography  in  grade  V  B;  and  history 
and  civics  in  grade  VI  A. 

Taking  the  program  as  it  is,  it  shows  exactly  what  a  given 
pupil  is  supp>osed  to  be  doing  at  every  moment  of  the  day. 
Adequate  study  time  is  arranged  for  each  lesson,  and  in 
nearly  every  case  study  immediately  precedes  recitation. 
The  difficult  studies  of  arithmetic  and  grammar  are,  from 
the  standpKDint  of  fatigue,  given  the  best  hours  of  the  day. 
There  is,  however,  nowhere  set  apart  any  time  for  the  super- 
vision of  study  periods.  This  can  only  be  made  possible  by 
a  system  of  alternating  some  of  the  courses.  For  instance, 
the  course  of  study  could  be  so  arranged  that  the  fifth  grade 
work  in  history  could  be  taken  by  the  two  sections  of  the 
grade  together,  and,  similarly,  other  combinations  could 
be  worked  out  which  would  make  it  possible  to  save  time 
by  having  two  classes  recite  together.  There  is  no  reason 
why  grades  V  A  and  V  B  should  not  work  together  in  physi- 
ology and  geography.  After  the  introductory  work  in  these 
subjects  one  topic  is  no  more  difficult  than  another,  and 
the  same  is  true  of  upper  grade  work  in  arithmetic  and  his- 
tory. 

Program  for  a  rural  school.  This  scheme  of  alternations 
is  carefully  worked  out  in  the  rural-school  program  printed 


THE  DAILY  PROGRAM 

Program  for  Rural  School^ 


169 


Recitations 


Study  and  Occupations 


Classes 


E  Division 
1st  year 


Opening  Exer- 
cises —  All 
Reading  —  E 
Reading  —  D 
Reading  —  C 

Arithmetic  —  B 

Arithmetic  —  A 
Arithmetic  —  C 


Numbers  —  E 
Numbers  —  D 
Reading  —  B 

Reading  —  A 

Language — C 

Drawing 
Writing 

NOON 

Reading  —  B 

Reading  —  D 

Creography  —  B 

Geography  —  A 

Agriculture  and 
Nature  Study 

—  C 
Agriculture  and 

Nature  Study 

—  E  and  D 
Agriculture  —  B 

and  A 
Music  or  Oral 
History 

RECESS 

Language  —  D 
Grammar  —  A 
Spelling  —  C 
Physiology  —  B 
History  —  A 

Spelling  —  B 

and  A 
General  lessons 


Copying 
Blackboard 

work 
Handwork 

Handwork 
Play 


Number  work 
Drawing 

Play 

Copying 


Blackboard 

work 
Written  work 

Handwork 

Play 


Handwork 


Copying 
Picture  work 
Play 
Play 
Copying 

Drawing 

Handwork  and 
Manual  Arts 


D  Division 
2d  year 


Reading 

Copying 

Blackboard 

work 
Handwork 
Play 

Drawing 

Number 
work 
Play 

Copying 


Library 
work 


Blackboard 

work 
Handwork 


Play 


Ebindwork 


Copying 
Copying 
Play 
Play 
Picture 
work 
Drawing 


C  Division 
3d  and 
4th  years 


B  Division 
5th  and 
6th  years 


Reading 
Reading 


Arithmetic 
Arithmetic 


Language 
Language 
Language 

Library 
work 


Arithmetic 
Arithmetic 

Nature 

Study 
Nature 

Study 

Drawing 

Spelling 


Spelling 
Spelling 

Reading 
Reading 

Drawing 


Arithmetic 
Arithmetic 
Arithmetic 


Reading 
Reading 


Reading 
Spelling 

Spelling 
Geography 


Geography 
Geography 

Language 
Language 


Physiology 
Physiology 

Library 
work 


A  Division 

7th  and 
8th  years 


Arithmetic 
Arithmetic 
Arithmetic 

Arithmetic 
Spelling 


Reading 
Reading 
Reading 


Library 
work 


Geography 
Geography 
Geography 

Grammar 
Grammar 


Grammar 

History 
History 


»  Taken  from  the  Course  of  Study  and  Manual  of  Methods  for  the  Elementary  Schools  al 
lw>a,  191$.  State  Department  of  Public  Instruction. 


170  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

on  page  169  which  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  rural  teachers 
in  the  elementary  schools  of  Iowa,  in  August,  1913. 

This  program  provides  for  the  alternating  of  all  third  and 
fourth  grade,  j&fth  and  sixth  grade,  and  seventh  and  eighth 
grade  studies,  so  that  the  teacher  has  only  five  distinct 
classes  to  provide  for.  There  are  twenty-seven  recitation 
periods  in  all.  Of  course  there  are  many  rural  schools  in 
which  one  or  more  of  these  divisions  would  not  appear,  but 
even  when  the  full  eight  grades  are  present  the  program 
is  a  possible  one.  By  a  somewhat  similar  scheme  of  alter- 
nating studies  the  Missoiu-i  state  course  of  study  provides 
a  four-division  program,  and  other  variations  from  the 
above  plan  will  be  foimd  in  use  in  different  places.  The 
above  program  illustrates  the  principle,  and  wiU  furnish  a 
useful  starting  point  for  most  any  rural  school. 

3.  How  to  use  the  program 

The  program  should  be  printed  on  a  large  stiff  sheet  of 
paper  that  can  be  hung  in  an  appropriate  place  in  the 
room.  If  the  Tuesday-Thursday  program  differs  seriously 
from  that  for  the  other  days  of  the  week,  then  have  the 
Tuesday-Thursday  program  on  one  side  of  the  card,  and 
that  for  the  other  days  on  the  other  side  of  the  card,  and 
appoint  a  monitor  (some  one  who  shows  that  he  knows  how 
to  live  up  to  a  program)  to  turn  the  card  each  evening  just 
before  school  closes.  At  the  outset,  when  the  program  is 
explained,  it  may  be  well  to  have  each  child  make  a  copy 
of  his  own  schedule,  and  keep  it  on  his  desk  for  a  few  days 
till  he  becomes  accustomed  to  it. 

The  beginning  teacher  will  find  it  desirable  to  adhere 
strictly  to  the  schedule,  for  the  following  reasons:  first  of 
all,  it  will  be  a  constant  check  on  her  success  at  making  her 
daily  lesson  plans;  second,  it  will  prevent  her  giving  an 
undue  amount  of  time  to  the  subject  she  happens  to  be 


THE  DAILY  PROGRAM  171 

most  interested  in,  and  so  robbing  other  studies  of  their 
proper  amount  of  time;  third,  it  will  teach  the  children  to 
make  systematic  preparation  for  all  their  work,  and  so 
establish  useful  work  habits. 

^.  Chapter  summary 

Here  we  have  set  forth:  the  problems  essential  to  the  planning  o! 
the  day's  work;  the  fundamental  principles  involved  in  its  organi- 
zation; the  practical  application  of  these  principles  in  typical  situ- 
ations; and  the  need  for  adhering  to  a  specific  program  of  work. 

We  have  seen  the  definite  arrangement  of  subject-matter,  of 
recreation,  and  of  recitations;  the  reasonable  distribution  of  time 
for  the  various  studies;  the  order  in  which  studies  shall  appear  on 
the  program;  —  all  as  practical  issues  which  every  teacher  must 
meet.  We  have  seen,  too,  that  imderlying  the  solution  of  these  are 
the  fundamental  questions  of  the  relative  value  of  studies;  the 
proper  distribution  of  work  and  play  with  respect  to  the  child's 
energy;  and  the  influence  of  some  systematic  distribution  of  time 
and  strength  upon  the  development  of  sound  work  habits. 

The  object  in  program-making,  then,  as  illustrated  in  the  typical 
programs  here  presented,  is  to  establish  order  in  the  day's  work 
and  to  economize  in  time  and  energy.  To  do  this,  the  more  formal 
studies  are  placed  at  the  hours  when  the  child's  energy  is  at  its 
maximum,  and  the  content  studies  at  the  hours  when  less  interest- 
ing work  would  cause  fatigue.  If  these  practices  are  adhered  to  it 
is  believed  there  will  be  little  occasion  for  worry  about  the  dangers 
from  overwork  at  school. 

REFERENCES  FOR  ADDITIONAL  READING 

Bagley,  W.  C,  Classroom  Management,  chap.  iv. 

Burns,  W.  P.,  The  Public  School  System  of  Gary,  Indiana,  U.S.  Buieau  d 

Education,  Bui.  (1914),  no.  18. 
Colgrove,  C.  P.,  The  Teacher  and  the  School,  chap.  xn. 
Seeley,  I.,  A  New  School  Management,  chap.  v. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  "What  does  the  making  of  a  daily  time  schedule  have  to  do  with  the 
determination  of  the  relative  values  of  studies.'* 

2.  Make  a  list  of  the  factors  to  be  dealt  with  in  making  out  a  daily 
program. 


172  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

8.  How  does  the  time  allotment  in  your  own  school  compare  with  that 
for  the  fifty  cities  represented  in  the  above  table? 

I.  In  the  above  table,  notice  the  relative  amount  of  time  given  to  recess. 
Does  it  seem  unreasonable  that  we  should  expect  some  educational 
return  for  that  time?  What  might  be  the  nature  of  that  return? 

5.  Explain  the  difference  between  form  and  content  studies,  and  state 
which,  in  general,  should  receive  most  time  in  the  day's  program. 
Why? 

6.  In  your  own  school  how  many  minutes  per  week  do  you  devote  to 
form  studies,  to  content  studies?  Figure  out  the  division  in  the  above 
table,  and  compare  with  your  own  allotment. 

7.  What  has  the  study  of  fatigue  to  do  with  the  order  of  the  studies  on 
the  program,  with  the  length  of  recitation  period,  and  with  the  fre- 
quency of  recreation  periods? 

8.  In  the  above  three-class  program,  figure  out  the  total  amount  of  time 
devoted  to  arithmetic.  Compare  this  with  the  amount  devoted  to 
English  (reading,  writing,  spelling,  grammar,  and  language)  and  with 
the  amount  devoted  to  science. 

9.  In  this  program  suggest  the  changes  necessary  to  place  spelling  im- 
mediately after  opening  exercises.  What  advantages  if  any  would 
come  from  such  changes. 

10.  Are  music  and  physical  culture  placed  to  best  advantage  on  the  pro- 
gram? Why?  What  percentage  of  a  child's  time  is  devoted  to  spelling? 

11.  What  advantage  is  there  in  a  plan  of  alternating  subjects. 

12.  In  the  above  program  for  a  rural  school,  figure  out  the  amount  of 
time  in  hours  a  child  would  spend  on  arithmetic  from  the  time  he 
would  enter  grade  one  until  he  would  finish  grade  eight,  supposing 
the  year  to  be  nine  months  long.  What  percentage  is  this  amount  of 
the  entire  number  of  working  hours  the  child  would  have  been  in 
school  during  the  eight  years  ? 


CHAPTER  XIII 

THE  CLASS  STUDYING 

Outline  of  Chapter 

1.  The  problem  —  The  importance  of  right  methods  —  Outside  problems  very  real  — 
The  meaning  of  study  —  Intelligent  study  —  The  function  of  these  methods  in  practical 
a£Fairs. 

2.  The  teacher's  attitude  toward  the  problem  —  The  teacher's  problem  —  Three  prob- 
lems in  the  learning  process  —  The  first  step,  a  clear  aim  —  Making  the  assignment  —  Con- 
siderations in  assignments  —  The  second  step,  to  provide  a  motive  —  The  third  step,  how 
to  find  and  to  organize  materials  —  Teaching  how  to  study  —  The  fourth  step,  develop- 
ment of  a  critical  attitude  of  mind  —  The  critical  attitude  illustrated  —  The  fifth  step,  to 
provide  right  conditions  of  work  —  The  ultimate  aim  good  work  habits. 

3.  Summary  —  References  —  Questions. 

1.  The  'problem 

In  our  discussion  of  what  is  to  be  taught  in  the  school, 
special  emphasis  was  laid,  first,  upon  the  wide  variety  of 
knowledge  and  activities  to  be  included;  and  second,  upon 
the  importance  of  so  organizing  these  materials  that  their 
connections  with  each  other  and  with  the  common  affairs 
of  life  outside  the  school  would  be  felt  by  the  child.  How 
to  study  is  a  question  of  how  to  work  intelligently  at  each 
of  the  numerous  and  widely  different  tasks  which  the  mod- 
ern curriculum  presents. 

The  importance  of  right  methods.  That  the  problem 
of  how  to  study  is  important  is  almost  too  obvious  to  war- 
rant any  reference  to  it  here,  were  it  not  for  the  fact  that 
its  significance  is  so  commonly  overlooked  in  practice.  The 
fact  that  until  very  recently  the  school  did  not  teach  chil- 
dren how  to  study,  but  merely  heard  them  recite  what  they 
had  learned  in  their  own  way,  does  not  mean  that  there 
was  no  need  for  such  teaching.  It  is  true  that  a  few  boys 
have  learned  to  swim  by  being  thrown  into  the  water  and 
then  left  to  cet  out  alone,  and  possibly  a  few  have  learned 


174  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

to  study  and  to  think  clearly  by  being  assigned  a  lesson  and 
then  left  to  get  it  or  remain  after  school.  But  just  as  the 
boy  who  learns  to  swim  under  such  pressure  does  not  use 
a  single  scientific  stroke,  so  investigation  has  shown  that 
children  who  have  not  been  taught  how  to  study  intelli- 
gently do  not  use  proper  methods  of  study.  ^  If  this  be  true, 
and  it  unquestionably  is,  then  teaching  a  child  how  to  work 
at  a  task,  is  a  question  of  very  first  importance,  and  should 
be  accepted  by  the  school  as  one  of  its  chief  problems. 

Outside  problems  very  real.  The  extent  of  this  impor- 
tance is  not  confined  to  the  schoolroom.  The  study  of 
problems  outside  of  school  is  as  real  as  is  the  study  of  books, 
and  the  two  should  not  only  not  be  separated  in  the  teacher's 
mind,  but  it  should  be  her  particular  duty  to  lead  her  pupils 
to  realize  that  good  methods  applied  to  sweeping,  running 
errands,  setting  the  table,  doing  chores,  making  garden, 
buying  and  selling  goods,  earing  for  one's  earnings,  being 
kind  and  courteous,  and  running  the  affairs  of  the  commu- 
nity, is  precisely  the  same  thing  as  good  methods  applied 
to  school  lessons.  This  is  one  of  the  things  that  is  meant 
when  we  speak  of  tying  the  school  up  to  community  life. 
The  tying  should  have  to  do  with  methods  of  work  as  well 
as  with  subject-matter. 

The  meaning  of  study.  If  we  are  to  undertake  the  man- 
agement of  the  study  process,  we  must  first  of  all  have  a 
clear  notion  of  what  we  mean  by  study,  or  in  other  words 
we  must  have  a  clear  teaching  aim.^  We  commonly  think 
of  study  as  work,  but  too  often  make  no  further  analysis 
of  the  term  than  that,  if  we  do  we  think  of  memorizing 
as  being  almost  synonymous  with  the  word  study.  But  if 
we  recall  the  various  aims  of  education,^  and  the  large  num- 

*  See  Earhart,  Lida  B.,  Systematic  Study  in  tiie  Elementary  School, 
Teachers  College  Contributions,  no.  18.  (1908.) 

*  See  p.  26  flf.  'See  Summary  to  chap.  i. 


THE  CLASS  STUDYING  175 

ber  and  wide  variety  of  studies  ofiFered  in  the  curriculum, 
we  at  once  see  that  study  is  by  no  means  a  matter  of  merely 
memorizing  facts. 

Intelligent  study.  Let  us  enumerate  some  of  the  things 
the  child  must  do  when  he  studies  intelligently:  — 

1.  He  must  observe  accurately,  otherwise  he  could  not  read  his 
music,  or  his  geography,  or  write  an  accurate  descriptive 
theme,  or  dance,  or  write,  or  become  acquainted  with  birds 
and  flowers.  Here  we  are  concerned  with  the  use  of  the  senses 
of  sight,  hearing,  touch,  and  in  a  limited  way  with  those  of 
smell  and  taste. 

2.  He  must  attend  quickly,  and  be  able  to  concentrate  attention 
upon  the  question  in  hand,  otherwise  he  is  not  studying,  but 
merely  dawdling,  he  is  only  passive  when  he  should  be  active 
and  aggressive. 

3.  He  must  of  course  remember  the  things  he  observes  and  at- 
tends to. 

4.  He  must  compare  and  diflFerentiate  objects  and  facts,  that  is, 
he  must  see  relationships,  and  that  not  only  between  objects 
of  the  senses,  but  also  between  ideas,  and  between  things 
absent  as  well  as  things  present.  It  is  a  matter  of  bringing 
the  imagination  to  bear  upon  the  things  experienced. 

5.  He  must  be  able  to  state  clearly  what  he  has  thought  or 
observed,  that  is,  distinguish  the  main  from  the  subordinate 
facts  and  ideas,  and  put  his  thoughts  in  good  form. 

The  fimction  of  these  methods  in  practical  afifairs.  These 
are  a  few  of  the  most  important  processes  involved  in  study, 
and  it  is  scarcely  necessary  to  show  the  extent  to  which 
each  of  these  is  essential  to  real  success  in  life.  The  touch 
of  the  surgeon  must  not  fail  him  when  he  is  cutting  human 
tissues,  and  the  physician  must  know  what  he  hears  when 
hstening  to  the  breathing  or  heartbeat  of  the  patient.  Musi- 
cal instruments  would  remain  silent,  and  the  landscape  un- 
painted,  were  it  not  for  the  trained  senses  of  touch,  sight, 
and  hearing.  How  much  the  work  of  the  sculptor  and  the 
artisan  is  dependent  upon  the  senses  of  touch  and  sight. 


176  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

Imagine  the  engineer  who  could  not  detect  a  defect  in  his 
machinery  by  its  sound,  and  who  could  not  single  out  and 
concentrate  his  whole  attention  upon  the  faintest  irregu- 
larity in  the  steady  hum  of  his  engines.  Imagine  the  in- 
ventor, the  musician,  the  painter,  the  sculptor,  the  scien- 
tist, or  the  man  of  affairs,  without  imagination,  and  with- 
out memory  that  retains  and  reproduces  the  right  things 
at  the  right  time.  The  purchaser  of  stock,  of  cloth  or  pa- 
per, who  could  not  detect  slight  differences  in  quality  would 
be  a  failure.  The  lawyer,  the  statesman,  the  journalist, 
the  administrative  officer  in  any  line  would  be  helpless  in 
the  midst  of  the  greatest  abundance  of  facts  if  he  had  not 
the  faculty  of  organizing  those  facts  and  stating  them 
clearly. 

Teaching  a  child  how  to  use  his  senses,  how  to  reason, 
how  to  memorize,  how  to  distinguish  fact  from  fiction,  is 
quite  as  important,  and  indeed  should  never  be  separated 
from,  teaching  him  facts,  for  after  aU,  how  we  get  facts, 
how  we  develop  skills,  determines  very  largely  what  we 
will  be  able  to  do  with  facts  and  skiUs  when  we  get  them. 
The  problem  of  managing  the  study  of  children  in  school, 
then,  is  the  problem  of  training  them  in  these  processes,  to 
the  end  that  they  may  be  able  to  use  their  knowledge  and 
skill  in  the  further  accumulation  of  that  greater  knowledge 
and  skill  which  makes  for  leadership  and  marks  the  edu' 
cated  man. 

2.  The  teacher's  attitvde  toward  the  problem 

The  teacher's  problem.  The  teacher  looks  at  the  many 
sides  of  this  problem,  and  then  at  the  coming  examinations 
which  her  pupils  must  pass  for  promotion,  and  knowing 
that  she  will  be  judged  very  largely  by  the  results  of  those 
examinations  raises  the  question  as  to  whether  children 
can  be  taught  how  to  study  more  intelligently  than  they  do. 


THE  CLASS  STUDYING  177 

and  if  so,  whether  it  will  pay  to  take  the  time  to  do  it.  And 
so  she  hesitates. 

A  poor  teacher  may  wisely  hesitate,  for  in  accepting 
such  a  program  she  is  to  a  large  extent  laying  aside  the  use 
of  fear  as  an  incentive  to  study.  She  can  no  longer  say: 
**  Take  to  page  16,  and  remain  after  school  if  you  fail  to 
get  the  lesson.'* 

A  really  professional  teacher  looks  for  more  permanent 
results  of  her  work.  She  aims  at  successful  examinations  as 
incidental  to  the  intellectual  development  of  her  pupils,  and 
not  as  the  final  end  of  her  teaching.  Consequently  she  is 
not  only  willing  but  anxious  to  face  her  real  problem,  the 
first  step  in  which  is  teaching  the  child  how  to  study  his 
lessons. 

Three  problems  in  the  learning  process.  In  the  manage- 
ment of  the  learning  process  there  are  three  fairly  distinct 
problems  to  be  dealt  with.  First,  the  assignment  of  lessons; 
second,  the  study  of  lessons;  and  third,  the  recitation  of 
lessons.  This  division  of  the  teaching  problem  into  three 
parts  does  not  mean  that  the  time  is  to  be  divided  equally 
among  the  three,  or  that  it  is  not  sometimes  necessary  to 
shift  from  one  to  the  other  and  back  again  during  a  recita- 
tion period,  but  it  does  mean  that  there  are  three  distinct 
functions  which  the  teacher  must  recognize  and  learn  to 
control.  As  the  master  carpenter  must  lay  out  with  care 
the  work  that  is  to  be  done  by  his  apprentices,  so  the  teacher 
must  learn  to  give  specific  directions  for  study  that  is  to  be 
done  by  the  class  in  her  absence. 

In  this  chapter  we  are  concerned  with  the  management 
of  study,  which  includes  two  of  these  problems,  viz.  how 
to  make  assignments,  and  how  to  direct  children  in 
economical  methods  of  study. 

The  first  step,  a  clear  aim.  In  teaching  the  child  how  to 
study  the  first  step  is  to  make  clear  to  him  the  problem  he 


m  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

has  to  solve.  This  is  the  function  of  the  lesson  assignment, 
a  function  more  often  badly  performed  than  almost  any 
other  function  in  teaching.  To  know  specifically  what  you 
are  going  to  do  is  of  first  importance.  If  you  are  looking  for 
an  answer  to  a  question,  then  information  that  does  not 
answer  that  question  is  quickly  discarded,  and  that  which 
does  answer  it  is  quickly  recognized.  To  read  a  page  merely 
because  the  teacher  assigned  that  page  is  not  to  look  for 
anything  in  particular,  and  at  best  puts  the  child  in  a  recep- 
tive rather  than  a  critical  attitude  of  mind.  He  takes  what 
the  page  says  as  final  authority,  and  asks  no  question.  A 
proper  assignment  is  not  merely  quantitative,  it  must  set 
up  a  specific  problem  for  the  child  to  solve.  Something 
definite  to  observe,  to  discover,  to  describe,  to  relate,  to 
make,  to  imitate,  to  explain,  to  compare,  etc. 

Making  the  assignment.  How  to  make  such  an  assign- 
ment, that  is,  how  to  make  each  lesson  stand  out  in  the 
child's  mind  as  a  problem  to  be  solved  or  as  something  defi- 
nite to  be  done,  is  by  no  means  a  simple  matter.  To  make 
the  aim  of  the  assignment  clear  the  teacher  must  keep  in 
mind  two  things;  first,  the  fact  of  individual  differences, 
and  second,  the  wide  variety  of  problems  which  the  modem 
school  program  presents  to  the  child.  What  has  been  said 
of  individual  differences^  applies  in  a  very  important  way 
here.  In  the  study  of  Evangeline,  for  instance,  no  two  pupils 
will  have  the  same  interest  in  the  poem.  Some  will  be  inter- 
ested in  the  chief  characters,  some  in  the  old  legends  upon 
which  the  story  is  based,  some  in  the  scenes  described,  some 
in  the  literary  form.  If  a  study  of  Evangeline  as  a  character 
is  the  lesson,  no  two  pupils  will  have  the  same  equipment 
for  the  study.  Some  will  be  familiar  with  a  wide  range  of 
characters  in  fiction  with  whom  EvangeHne  may  be  com- 
pared or  contrasted,  and  some  will  know  but  few.  And  so 
1  See  chapter  ni,  section  6. 


THE  CLASS  STUDYING  179 

on,  in  numberless  ways,  both  in  native  interests  and  in 
previous  training  and  experience,  the  pupils  will  differ  from 
each  other. 

The  complexity  of  the  teacher's  problem  seems  almost 
limitless  when  to  this  we  add  the  wide  variety  of  lessons 
she  is  called  upon  to  assign.  Nature  study,  writing,  spelling, 
and  arithmetic  are  not  much  alike.  Nature  study  is  likely 
to  involve  careful  observation,  writing  aims  at  particular 
muscular  coordinations,  spelling  is  largely  memorizing,  and 
arithmetic  may  emphasize  either  memory  or  reason,  or  both. 
Psychologically,  almost  every  possible  variety  of  problem 
presents  itself  where  the  teacher  is  in  charge  of  several 
grades. 

Considerations  in  assignments.  A  full  understanding  of 
these  two  facts  will  help  the  teacher  to  realize  that  assign- 
ments must  be  made,  first,  in  terms  of  the  nature  and  train- 
ing of  the  individual,  and  second,  in  terms  of  the  particular 
mental  or  physical  activity  involved.  She  cannot  talk  to 
the  "class,"  or  to  the  "average  pupil";  she  must  talk  to 
each  pupil,  and  that  in  terms  of  his  interests  and  knowledge 
of  the  subject  in  hand.  This  means  that  her  own  grasp  of 
the  subject  must  be  very  broad.  K  it  is  a  case  of  memorizing 
a  poem  she  will  have  to  answer  two  questions  for  herself: 
first,  what  do  the  various  pupils  know  about  the  poem,  and 
what  kinds  of  interests  are  they  likely  to  have  in  studying 
it;  and  second,  what  is  the  best  way  for  them  to  memorize 
it?  She  can  answer  the  first  question  only  if  she  is  intimately 
acquainted  with  each  pupil,  and  the  second  only  if  she 
knows  something  about  the  psychology  of  memorizing.  The 
influence  of  age,  of  repetition  and  its  frequency,  of  rhythm, 
of  committing  part  by  part  or  by  wholes,  are  questions  she 
must  be  able  to  answer  before  she  can  really  make  the  aim 
of  the  child's  study  specific. 

Again,  if  the  particular  activity  is  some  form  of  muscular 


180  CIASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

coordination,  as  in  writing,  drawing,  painting,  or  musculai 
work,  the  aim  is  not  clear  when  the  teacher  hands  the  child 
a  copy  or  model  to  work  by.  How  to  hold  the  instrument, 
position  of  the  body,  repetition  of  movement,  speed, 
amount  and  periods  of  practice,  and  other  detailed  ques- 
tions are  necessary  to  determine  before  the  child  can  know 
exactly  what  he  is  to  do.  The  aim  will  usually  be  a  combina- 
tion of  two  or  more  of  these  processes,  as  memory  and  obser- 
vation and  reason,  or  observation  and  muscular  coordina- 
tion, etc.  It  is  not  clear  to  the  child  just  what  he  is  to  do 
until  he  knows  exactly  how  it  is  to  be  done.  The  how  and 
the  what  in  teaching  are  practically  inseparable.  ^ 

The  second  step,  to  provide  a  motive.  The  second  large 
problem  in  teaching  children  how  to  study  is  that  of  pro- 
viding them  with  a  motive  for  study.  Before  assigning  a 
lesson  the  teacher  should  ask  herself  why  John  or  Mary 
should  want  to  study  that  lesson.  The  question  of  motives 
has  been  discussed  at  length  in  chapter  ix,  and  some  of  the 
principles  set  forth  there  have  a  direct  bearing  upon  the 
management  of  study.  Certainly  fear  of  punishment,  so 
easily  applied,  would  be  ruled  out  here,  and  our  approach 
would  be  from  the  standpoint  of  trying  to  create  in  the 
child's  experience  a  real  need  for  the  new  information  or 
skill  to  be  gotten  from  the  lesson  assigned.  People  think 
only  when  something  p>erplexes  them,  when  their  knowledge 
or  understanding  of  a  situation  is  incomplete;  and  they 
work  aggressively  at  the  gathering  of  facts  or  the  acquiring 
of  skill,  only  when  the  facts  or  skill  somehow  fit  into  their 
partially  imderstood  or  half-mastered  situation. 

That  means,  then,  that  the  child  must  not  only  see  clearly 

the  aim  of  his  study,  but  he  must  feel  that  the  achievement 

of  that  aim  will  help  him  to  a  fuller  explanation  of  things 

now  but  partially  understood.  To  do  this  an  endless  variety 

^  See  chapter  n,  section  2. 


THE  CLASS  STUDYING  181 

of  little  devices  will  be  brought  into  play.  Questions  should 
be  raised  by  the  teacher,  and  the  pupils  should  be  stimu- 
lated to  raise  others.  Special  assignments  to  individuals  or 
to  separate  groups,  each  covering  a  definite  subordinate 
problem,  can  often  be  made.  Pupils  may  frequently  be 
asked  to  suggest  where  to  find  materials,  how  best  to  study 
the  lesson,  the  best  form  of  report  to  make,  etc.,  the  object 
being  to  put  the  child  on  his  own  initiative  as  far  as  possible, 
and  to  stimulate  an  aggressive  attitude  of  mind.  It  is  only 
by  raising  questions  in  the  child's  mind  that  he  will  be  able 
to  discover  what  the  new  information  or  skill  will  do  for 
him,  and  only  when  that  discovery  is  made  will  he  feel  the 
necessity  of  working  to  get  it. 

The  third  step,  how  to  find  and  to  organize  materials. 
Once  a  child  knows  exactly  what  he  is  to  do,  and  has  a 
motive  for  doing  it,  the  next  question  is  where  are  the  mate- 
rials to  work  with.  In  the  elementary  school  it  will  often  be 
true  that  all  the  child  needs  will  be  the  page  or  two  in  his 
text.  Because  this  is  so  often  true  for  the  immediate  purpose 
in  hand,  the  teacher  frequently  neglects  to  teach  the  child 
how  to  find  and  use  other  materials  which  bear  directly  or 
indirectly  upon  the  lesson  in  hand.  The  next  thing  to  know- 
ing a  fact  is  knowing  how  to  find  it,  and  how  to  reinforce  it 
with  other  related  facts. 

One  of  the  school's  greatest  sources  of  waste  is  and  always 
has  been  the  teaching  of  facts  in  isolation.  The  fact  learned 
from  the  geography  is  more  or  less  isolated,  so  far  as  its  real 
meaning  for  the  child  is  concerned,  until  it  has  been  found 
in  some  other  relations.  The  bare  fact  that  St.  Louis  is  a 
large  city  at  the  confluence  of  two  great  rivers  is  of  no  sig- 
nificance, and  will  be  forgotten  unless  the  child  learns  more 
than  that.  Now,  the  question  is,  how  to  prevent  him  from 
being  satisfied  with  merely  memorizing  the  fact  from  the 
printed  page,  and  how  to  equip  him  with  facilities  for  so 


182  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

vitalizing  that  fact  that  it  will  have  more  than  a  verbal 
significance  in  his  memory.  There  are  numerous  pictures, 
guidebooks,  maps,  and  gazetteers,  as  well  as  cyclopaedias, 
railroad  time-tables,  the  United  States  Census  Reports,  etc., 
from  which  the  child  could  learn  how  large  St.  Louis  is  in 
terms  of  its  railroads,  its  industries,  its  population,  its  area, 
the  number  of  churches,  schools,  parks  and  playgrounds, 
public  Hbraries,  and  museums.  If  the  lesson  has  to  do  with 
the  location  and  size  of  St.  Louis,  it  is  worth  while,  not  only 
to  study  its  size  in  all  these  terms,  —  since  at  every  turn 
the  question  of  why,  why  so  many  railroads,  parks,  indus- 
tries, is  raised,  —  but  even  more  important  that  the  chil- 
dren become  familiar  with  these  sources  of  materials  and 
how  to  use  them. 

Teaching  how  to  study.  College  librarians  constantly 
complain  that  the  entering  freshman  does  not  know  how  to 
find  anything  outside  of  his  textbook  lesson.  Not  only 
should  the  elementary  school  teach  the  use  of  the  common 
reference  materials,  but  it  should  send  the  pupil  to  the  high 
school  with  firmly  fixed  habits  of  using  them.  This  will  in- 
volve a  knowledge  of  how  to  use  an  index  and  a  table  of 
contents,  two  simple  tools  which  will  save  almost  an  endless 
amount  of  time,  and  conduce  to  clear  thinking.  Nor  is  all 
the  reference  material  to  be  found  in  books,  maps,  and  pic- 
tures. The  museum  is  often  available,  with  the  very  richest 
materials  for  proving  and  illustrating  things  learned  from 
books,  and  best  of  all  there  is  the  physical  and  social  world 
outside  which  becomes  an  open  book  to  those  who  learn  to 
read  it.  Why  study  directions,  rivers,  islands,  lakes,  drain- 
age systems,  animal  and  plant  life,  and  industries  from  books 
alone,  when  the  real  things  may  often  be  investigated  at 
first  hand  only  a  stone's  throw  from  the  classroom  window. 

How  to  find  materials  brings  the  child  up  against  the 
question  of  how  to  select  and  organize  them.  If  in  connec- 


THE  CLASS  STUDYING  183 

tion  with  a  given  lesson  the  child  is  asked  to  read  another 
book  or  article,  he  must  be  taught  to  read  with  definite 
questions  in  mind,  and  to  write  down  the  ideas  or  facts 
which  answer  his  questions.  Some  definite  training  in  this 
is  necessary.  How  to  take  notes,  how  to  pick  out  the  gist 
of  an  article  or  to  make  an  abstract  of  it,  are  things  that 
should  be  taught  for  they  are  essential  to  systematic  meth- 
ods of  study. 

The  fourth  step,  development  of  a  critical  attitude  of 
mind.  Whatever  skill  a  child  may  develop  in  collecting  facts 
under  the  teacher's  directions,  he  will  ultimately  be  called 
upon  to  do  his  own  selecting,  and  to  act  in  terms  of  the 
values  he  places  upon  the  facts  he  finds.  Ability  to  discrim- 
inate the  false  from  the  true  is  of  first  importance,  and  will 
only  grow  with  practice  in  making  such  discriminations. 
School  children  frequently  cite  their  book  as  proof  of  a 
statement.  The  reason  they  have  learned  to  rely  on  the 
book  is  because  they  have  been  permitted  to  do  so.  The 
teacher  has  called  upon  them  merely  to  recite  the  facts  con- 
tained in  the  book,  and  not  to  test  those  facts  for  their  true 
worth.  Such  is  not  only  not  teaching  the  child  one  of  the 
most  important  elements  in  the  study  process,  but,  by 
neglect,  it  is  fastening  upon  the  child  an  attitude  of  mind 
that  is  positively  harmful.  It  makes  him  a  worshiper  of  the 
printed  page,  and  trains  him  not  only  to  trust  every  author 
he  reads,  but  to  be  content  with  the  ideas  of  others. 

The  critical  habit  illustrated.  The  opposite  habits  are 
what  should  be  aimed  at.  The  child  must  take  a  positive, 
instead  of  a  passive,  attitude  toward  what  he  reads,  or  hears, 
or  otherwise  senses.  To  establish  these  habits  children 
should  not  be  held  to  one  single  bix)k  in  any  subject.  Many 
readers,  histories,  geographies,  arithmetics,  will  be  better 
than  one.  If  there  is  not  time  for  each  child  to  read  two  or 
three  books,  then  assign  lessons  in  three  books  and  divide 


184  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

the  class  into  as  many  groups,  assigning  a  different  book  to 
each  group  from  which  reports  will  be  made  as  to  what  is 
said  on  the  subject  in  question.  Again,  after  the  geography 
class  has  studied  what  a  couple  of  texts  have  to  say  on  drain- 
age, take  the  class  to  a  nearby  field,  where  they  may  verify 
the  statements  read.  Occasionally  books  will  differ  on  a 
question.  That  is  an  opportunity  to  teach  the  class  how  to 
find  out  which,  if  either,  is  right.  Children  study  history 
and  civics,  and  leave  school  supposing  that  our  form  of 
government  is  the  best  yet  evolved.  The  constitution,  the 
state  laws,  the  city  ordinances,  are  held  in  awe,  and  the 
oflScers  are  looked  upon  as  different  from  other  people, 
largely  because  the  textbook  facts  about  these  matters  have 
never  been  questioned.  Children  should  be  pyermitted  to 
see  how  the  laws  and  officers  they  read  about  play  a  part 
in  their  own  community  life,  and  this  they  will  not  do  unless 
they  are  trained  to  go  to  other  books  and  to  things  them- 
selves as  other  sources  of  knowledge,  and  to  note  carefuUy 
the  points  of  agreement  and  of  difference  which  the  various 
sources  reveal. 

The  fifth  step,  to  provide  right  conditions  of  work.  Fin- 
ally, in  addition  to  giving  specific  directions  for  work,  right 
conditions  for  carrying  on  the  work  must  be  looked  after. 
Needless  distracting  noises  inside  and  outside  should  be 
guarded  against;  the  seats  or  tables  should  be  made  com- 
fortable with  respect  to  position,  temperature,  and  light; 
a  regular  study  program  worked  out;  and  easy  access  to 
sources  such  as  have  been  mentioned  above  must  be  pro- 
vided for.  These  are  all  a  part  of  training  in  systematic 
orderly  methods  of  work.  When  it  comes  time  to  study 
spelling,  children  should  be  taught  to  clear  their  desks  of 
all  other  material  and  to  place  before  themselves  just  the 
things  they  expect  to  use  in  the  study  of  the  spelling  les- 
son.   This  is  really  the  first  step  in  fixing  attention  upon  the 


THE  CLASS  STUDYING  185 

spelling  lesson,  and  the  first  step  in  clear  and  undisturbed 
thinking. 

The  ultimate  aim  good  work  habits.  The  ultimate  aim 
of  the  teacher  is  to  fix  these  various  steps  in  the  fonn  of  good 
work  habits.  Children  must  develop  a  respect  for  accuracy 
in  general.  They  must  leam  how  to  begin  new  tasks  with 
care,  and  to  apply  system  in  their  procedure.  They  must 
accustom  themselves  to  the  use  of  the  dictionary  and  other 
common  reference  materials.  Not  only  must  the  child  be 
taught  how  to  study,  but  he  must  be  watched  constantly  to 
see  that  he  uses  correct  methods  at  all  times.  The  laws  of 
habit  formation  apply  here  as  elsewhere,  and  the  teacher  must 
be  constantly  on  the  alert  for  lapses  from  the  best  methods. 

Most  certainly  all  this  cannot  be  accompHshed  in  the 
lesson  assignment.  The  assignment  must  be  followed  up  by 
careful  supervision  during  the  study  period.  This  is  im- 
possible to  do  in  an  ideal  way  in  a  one-room  school,  yet 
much  can  be  done  if  the  teacher  trains  herself  to  see  a  pupil's 
needs  when  he  is  studying.  The  common  mistake  made  in 
supervision  is  that  of  telling  the  child  too  much.  It  is  far 
better  to  raise  questions  in  his  mind  that  will  provoke  think- 
ing in  the  right  direction.  He  must  be  kept  on  the  initiative 
always,  for  otherwise  he  is  not  really  studying.  We  must  not 
train  children  to  go  groping  through  the  woods  with  a  vague 
notion  that  something  will  stick  to  them;  we  must  train 
them  to  go  in  search  of  something,  and  that  something  must 
be  as  definite  in  their  minds  as  it  is  possible  to  make  it.  It  is 
not  only  facts,  and  clever  recitations,  but  also  how  to  find, 
to  verify,  to  evaluate,  and  to  use  these  facts  that  is  ulti- 
mately important  in  the  child's  education. 

3.  Chapter  summary 

Teaching  the  pupil  how  to  study  has  been  treated  here  as  a 
problem  in  management  because  that  is  mainly  what  it  is.    The 


186  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

importance  of  right  methods  of  study,  when  they  are  extended  to 
all  kinds  and  aspects  of  school  work,  and  correlated  as  far  as  may 
be  with  outside  activities,  has  been  pointed  out,  as  have  the  actual 
steps  in  the  study  process. 

The  proper  attitude  for  the  teacher  to  assume  toward  the  three 
phases  of  the  teaching  process  —  assignment,  study,  and  recitation 
—  has  been  explained,  and  concrete  suggestions  offered  for  man- 
aging the  individual  and  the  class  with  respect  to  each. 

As  everywhere  in  management,  the  emphasis  here  is  first  upon 
a  clear  aim.  The  child  must  know  exactly  what  he  is  to  do.  Second 
to  a  clear  aim  is  a  real  motive  for  study.  The  assignment  must 
create  actual  problems  if  we  expect  an  aggressive  attitude  on  the 
part  of  the  pupil.  Third,  how  to  find  and  organize  materials  that 
will  solve  these  problems  must  be  made  clear.  But  this  is  not  all, 
for  proper  management  of  study  must  result  finally  in  critical  atti- 
tudes toward  facts,  and  in  sound  habits  of  work.  These  can  only 
result  from  actual  practice  in  comparing  sources,  and  verifying 
the  facts  of  the  book  by  checking  them  against  facts  found  out- 
side the  book. 

REFERENCES  FOR  ADDITIONAL  READING 

Dewey,  John,  How  We  Think,  pp.  1-28. 

Earhart,  L.  B.,  Teaching  Children  to  Study.  Especially  chaps,  v,  vn,  vin. 

McMurry,  F.  M.,  How  to  Study  and  Teaching  How  to  Study.  Especially 

chaps,  n  and  xi. 
Whipple,  G.  M.,  How  to  Study  Effectively. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  In  what  important  particulars  were  you  taught  how  to  study  while 
in  the  elementary  school?  Explain  any  important  ideas  that  you 
regularly  apply  in  your  own  present  methods  of  study.  Where  did 
you  get  those  idea.*^  ?  Could  they  have  been  explained  to  you  in  the 
elementary  school? 

2.  What  do  you  mean  by  study,  and  why  is  it  important  that  we  learn 
how  to  study  systeinatically? 

3.  What  are  some  practical  diflSculties  in  the  way  of  teaching  children 
how  to  study? 

4.  Before  you  can  teach  how  to  study  you  must  of  course  know  how 
yourself.  Suppose  you  have  assigned  a  spelling  lesson  of  three  new 
words  in  grade  three.  How  would  you  explain  to  the  class  how  to 
study  that  lesson?  Do  you  know  any  books  or  articles  that  explain 


THE  CLASS  STUDYING  187 

the  best  method  of  studying  spelling?  Are  the  directions  they  give 
based  upon  the  results  of  scientific  study,  or  merely  upon  opinion? 

5.  If  the  lesson  being  assigned  is  a  lesson  in  number  combinations,  as 
the  multiplication  table  of  three's,  state  specifically  the  aim  you  would 
try  to  set  up  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils  as  the  thing  to  be  accomplished 
in  their  study.  Can  you  mention  any  literature  on  the  question  of 
how  to  memorize? 

6.  What  are  some  of  the  practical  difficulties  in  the  way  of  making  the 
aim  of  a  lesson  clear  to  all  pupils  in  a  class? 

7.  What  is  meant  by  providing  a  motive  for  study?  How  would  you 
provide  a  motive  for  the  study  of  a  spelling  lesson? 

8.  How  soon  should  a  child  learn  to  use  the  dictionary?  How  would 
you  teach  the  use  of  the  dictionary? 

9.  Explain  how  you  would  assign  a  lesson  on  the  landing  of  the  Pilgrims. 
What  questions  would  you  raise  for  the  class  to  answer,  what  materials 
would  you  have  them  use  to  supplement  the  text?  Would  your 
assignment  provide  a  real  motive  for  study? 

10.  Explain  how  you  would  train  children  to  be  critical  of  what  they  read? 
How  would  you  expect  to  teach  them  respect  for  accuracy? 

11.  What  advantage  is  there  for  teaching  how  to  study  in:  — - 

(a)  the  use  of  field  trips; 

(6)  special  assignments  and  reports; 

(c)  abstracting  articles; 

(d)  reporting  on  things  seen  or  heard; 

(e)  verifying  statements  by  comparing  authors. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

THE  CLASS  RECITING 
OuTUNB  OF  Chapter 

1.  Nature  and  purpose  of  the  recitation  —  Conducting  recitation  the  real  test  of  teaching 
skill  —  The  broader  meaning  of  recitation  —  Rule-of-thumb  method  inadequate. 

i.  The  aim  of  the  recitation  —  Necessity  for  a  clear  aim  —  The  teacher's  problem  — 
Recitation  tests  —  Recitation  products  —  Testing  as  an  aim  —  Teaching  as  an  aim  —  Lis- 
tening or  observing  as  an  aim  —  Drill  as  an  aim  —  When  to  use  these  aims. 

3.  The  plan  of  the  recitation  —  The  place  and  importance  of  interest  —  The  proper  use 
of  the  textbook  —  Textbook  use  and  teacher  eflBciency  —  The  topical  plan  of  recitation  — 
The  lecture  plan  of  recitation  —  The  question  and  answer  plan  of  recitation  —  Two  types 
of  questions  —  Forms  of  questions  —  The  real  test  of  good  questioning. 

4.  Right  conditions  of  work. 

5.  Summary  —  References  —  Questions. 

1.  Nature  and  purpose  of  the  recitation 

Conducting  recitation  the  real  test  of  teaching  skill.  The 
management  of  the  recitation  is  after  all  the  final  test  of 
professional  skill  in  teaching.  Here  the  teacher  is  confronted 
with  the  problem  of  individual  differences  as  at  no  other 
point  in  her  work,  and  that,  too,  in  a  continually  widening 
variety  of  lessons  and  exercises. 

The  time  was,  only  a  few  decades  ago,  when  the  term 
recitation  had  reference  to  the  pupil's  saying  over  to  his 
teacher  what  he  had  previously  learned  by  himself.  The 
exercise  was  narrowly  intellectual,  since  preparation  for  it 
involved  little  more  than  verbal  memory  work.  Such  a 
meaning  grew  less  and  less  applicable  as  the  aim  of  the  school 
broadened  to  include  the  aesthetic,  the  physical,  the  social 
and  moral,  and  the  economic  elements;  and  the  curriculum 
to  include  nature  study,  hygiene,  civics,  organized  play, 
domestic  science,  drawing,  music,  and  manual  work.  It  is 
not  that  the  process  has  become  less  intellectual  than  before, 
but  that  it  has  become  more  physical,  social,  and  aesthetic. 
Under  the  old  regime  the  child  sat  in  his  seat  with  a  book 


THE  CLASS  RECITING  189 

only.  To-day  he  has  not  a  book,  but  many  books,  and  is  as 
often  engaged  in  doing  as  in  saying  things.  Consequently 
the  recitation  is  no  longer  a  mere  re-citing,  or  saying  over, 
but  includes  all  the  wide  variety  of  mental  and  bodily  activ- 
ities essential  to  the  accompUshment  of  this  newer  aim  of 
education. 

The  broader  meaning  of  recitation.  Under  these  new  con- 
ditions the  nature  of  the  learning,  and  consequently  of  the 
teaching  process,  has  broadened  so  that  **  recitation  '*  means 
widely  different  things  under  different  circumstances.  So 
wide  are  these  differences,  in  fact,  that  we  have  come  to 
think  of  "recitation"  as  "  recitation  period"  and  to  differ- 
entiate these  periods  by  referring  to  one  as  the  geography 
recitation,  to  another  as  the  domestic-science  recitation, 
etc.  This  is  merely  the  way  in  which  we  have  recognized 
the  fact  that  the  learning  process,  and  consequently  the 
teaching  process,  is  widely  different  in  different  cases. 

From  the  child's  standpoint,  that  is  from  the  standpoint 
of  learning,  it  differs  in  the  fact  that  in  one  case  the  child 
merely  sits  or  stands,  and  relates  what  he  has  previously 
studied,  as  in  spelling;  in  another  he  moves  about,  work- 
ing with  his  hands,  and  using  tools  and  materials  instead 
of  books  and  words,  as  in  manual  training  and  domestic 
science;  in  another  he  uses  his  whole  body,  along  with  words 
and  materials,  to  impersonate  some  character,  as  in  drama- 
tizing; in  another  he  exercises  his  imagination,  by  drawing 
or  painting;  in  another  he  is  attempting  to  perfect  some 
mental  or  physical  process,  as  in  memorizing  verses  or  in 
developing  skill  in  writing;  in  another  he  is  moving  about  in 
response  to  social  stimuli,  interpreting  the  acts  of  his  fel- 
lows and  responding  to  them  in  cooperation  or  in  competi- 
tion, as  in  the  case  of  organized  play;  and  so  on,  in  almost 
endless  variety,  we  find  the  mental,  social,  and  bodily  activi- 
ties combined  in  different  recitations. 


190  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

From  the  standpoint  of  managing  the  recitation,  these 
periods  vary  greatly,  because  the  teacher  must  control  the 
attention  and  direct  the  energy  and  activities  of  her  pupils 
under  these  widely  different  circumstances,  and  to  these 
widely  different  ends. 

Rule-of-thumb  method  inadequate.  With  such  a  variety 
of  processes  it  is  clear  that  there  can  be  no  simple  rule-of- 
thumb  method  for  their  proper  management.  The  broad 
general  purpose  of  all  recitations  is  to  direct  this  learning 
process  to  the  end  that  the  greatest  economy  in  time  and 
energy  shall  be  effected.  How  to  organize  the  many  differ- 
ent kinds  of  subject-mattei*,  or  to  plan  the  varied  exercises, 
that  they  may  be  most  quickly  mastered  by  the  pupils;  how 
to  organize  the  class  and  to  arrange  the  different  materials 
to  this  same  end;  and  how  to  keep  each  individual  working 
with  purpose  and  enthusiasm  is  the  teacher's  task. 

2.  The  aim  of  the  recitation 

Necessity  for  a  clear  aim.  A  recitation  cannot  be  suc- 
cessfully managed  except  with  respect  to  some  definite 
end  which  is  clear  to  both  teacher  and  pupil.  It  is  one 
thing  for  the  teacher  to  say  the  aim  of  this  geography  les- 
son is  to  impart  knowledge;  it  is  a  different  thing  to  say 
specifically  what  knowledge,  how  it  is  related  to  knowledge 
the  child  now  possesses,  and  what  she  expects  the  child  to 
do  with  it  now,  and  five  or  ten  years  from  now.  For  pur- 
poses of  instruction  the  teacher  has  not  a  clear  aim  for  such 
recitations  until  she  has  considered  the  natiu-e  and  or- 
ganization of  the  facts  and  exercises  involved,  and  from 
these  points  of  view. 

The  child  will  seldom  have  so  broad  a  perspective  for 
what  he  is  to  study.  He  cannot  see  that  what  he  is  now 
learning  wUl  be  indispensable  to  him  in  later  years.  Yet  this 
does  not  mean  that  he  is  not  to  have  an  aim  with  respect  to 


THE  CLASS  RECITING  191 

every  part  of  his  school  work.  It  only  means  that  to  him 
the  aim  must  be  very  concrete.  The  geography  lesson  will 
answer  for  him  some  question,  which,  in  the  previous 
assignment,  the  teacher  was  careful  to  provoke.  What 
causes  the  seasons;  why  St.  Louis  came  to  be  a  large  city; 
why  Chicago  is  a  great  railroad  center,  etc.  Or,  in  phys- 
iology, Why  should  we  keep  our  teeth  clean.?  In  such  les- 
gOTis  his  aim  is  to  try  to  answer  these  questions.  In  writing 
it  is  to  imitate  a  copy,  or  to  increase  his  speed.  In  language 
it  is  to  tell  a  story,  or  to  write  a  description  of  a  familiar 
scene.  Thus  while  all  lessons  will  have  these  general  and 
future  values  which  the  teacher  will  hold  in  mind,  for  him 
they  must  stand  as  concrete  tasks  or  problems,  so  specific 
in  nature  that  he  sees  just  where  to  begin,  and  so  related 
to  what  he  knows  and  wants  to  know  that  it  moves  him  to 
action.  That  is,  before  the  recitation  can  have  a  clear  aim 
for  him,  he  must  have  had  an  aim  in  its  preparation. 

The  teacher's  problem.  The  teacher's  problem  is  the 
double  one  therefore  of  determining,  first,  what  she  desires 
to  accomplish  in  the  recitation;  and  second,  of  seeing  to  it 
that  the  pupils  have  a  clear  notion  of  what  they  are  to  do. 
In  the  schematic  presentation  given  on  page  192  it  is  not 
presumed  to  set  forth  any  final  analysis  of  this  problem,  but 
merely  to  offer  a  plan  by  which  it  is  believed  the  reader  may 
be  helped  to  differentiate  the  aim  of  the  teacher  from  that 
of  the  pupil  in  the  conduct  of  the  recitation,  and  to  see 
the  points  at  which  the  teaching  aim  must  issue  in  some- 
thing accompHshed  by  the  pupil. 

Recitation  tests.  First  of  all  we  need  to  think  of  the  aim 
of  the  recitation  from  two  standpoints:  first,  that  of  the 
process  through  which  teacher  and  pupils  are  to  pass;  and 
second,  that  of  the  product  which  is  to  result  from  the 
procedure.  A  teacher  may,  by  her  clever  ways  with  chil- 
dren, conduct  a  lively  recitation  and  yet  fail  to  accompUsh 


192 


CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

Recitation  Aim 


From  the 
stand- 
point of 


The  process     < 
involved 


1.  Instruction 
(by  the  teacher) 


II 

The  knowl- 
edge or 
experience 
to  be  acquired 
,(by  the  child) 


2.  Learning 
(by  the  pupil) 


1.  Appreciation 

2.  Knowledge 

3.  Skill 

4.  Physical  training 

5.  Moral  growth 

6.  Executive  power 

7.  Initiative 


a.  Testing 

b.  Teaching 

c.  Listening  or  observ 
ing 

d.  Drilling 

a.  Answering 
6.  Studying 

c.  Reciting 

d.  Practicing  or  per 
forming 

a.  Intellectual 

6.  Emotional 

a.  Knowledge  what 

b.  Knowledge  how 

a.  Mental 

b.  Physical 
a.  Corrective 

.6.  Developmental 
a.  Habits  of  conduct 
.  b.  Ideals  of  conduct 

a.  Intellectual 

b.  Social 


THE  CLASS  RECITING  193 

a  proper  end.  Recitations  are  not  successful  when  they 
end  in  mere  excitement  or  entertainment  alone. 

This  recitation  process  we  must  learn  to  watch  from  the 
standpoint  of  both  teacher  (instruction)  and  pupil  (learn- 
ing). While  the  teacher's  aims  may  be  roughly  classified 
as  testing,  teaching,  listening  or  observing,  and  drilling,  we 
must  remember  that  a  measure  of  their  effectiveness  is  not 
how  much  the  teacher  talks  or  questions  or  observes,  but 
how  much  she  finds  out  from  the  child  and  helps  him  to 
accomplish.  To  him  it  is  not  a  mere  matter  of  observing 
what  the  teacher  has  to  offer.  He  is  active,  not  passive, 
and  is  to  be  busy  with  answering,  studying,  reciting,  per- 
forming, or  practicing.  Her  concern  is  quite  as  much  with 
the  learning  as  with  the  teaching  end.  The  nature  of  the 
child's  answers,  how  he  studies,  recites,  or  practices,  these 
are  the  points  at  which  her  own  aims  and  processes  must 
have  their  final  issue,  and  the  rather  trite  statement  thai 
there  is  no  teaching  except  when  there  is  learning  is  not 
less  true  because  it  is  commonplace. 

Recitation  products.  The  product  to  be  obtained,  that 
is,  the  knowledge  or  experience  to  be  acquired  by  the  pupil, 
must  be  understood  by  both  teacher  and  pupil.  The  spell- 
ing recitation  aims  at  correct  pronunciation,  use,  and  spell- 
ing of  a  given  number  of  new  words,  with  review  of  cer- 
tain words  previously  learned;  the  writing  lesson  aims  at 
observable  improvement  in  position,  movement,  form  of 
words,  and  speed;  the  arithmetic  recitation  at  a  full  and 
clear  explanation  of  certain  assigned  problems,  or  drill  on 
certain  number  combinations;  the  reading  recitation  at 
correct  pronunciation,  clear  enunciation,  accurate  expres- 
sion and  interpretation  of  a  given  piece  of  reading  matter, 
etc.  Beyond  these  immediate  products,  however,  the 
teacher  aims  at  a  list  of  broader,  more  general,  more  distant 
achievements,  all  of  which  are  matters  of  slow  growth. 


194  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

While  correct  spelling,  reading,  and  writing  may  be  her 
immediate  aim,  it  is  through  these  that  she  seeks  the  devel- 
opment of  her  pupils  in  their  knowledge,  skill,  and  ap- 
preciation of  their  mother  tongue.  Nor  is  it  knowledge  of 
language  only,  but  of  history,  number,  institutions,  and 
I>eople  past  and  present,  of  essential  processes,  etc.,  that 
the  teacher  must  keep  in  mind. 

How  to  bring  to  bear  the  narrow  and  concrete  purposes 
of  each  individual  recitation  upon  the  accomplishment  of 
these  ultimate  aims  of  appreciation,  knowledge,  skill,  phys- 
ical development,  moral  growth,  executive  power,  and 
individual  initiative,  is  the  real  problem  involved  in  the 
formulation  of  the  recitation  aim,  and  it  is  in  the  task  of 
fitting  the  immediate  and  concrete  teaching  act  into  the 
ultimate  purpose  of  the  work  that  the  teacher  comes  to 
realize  fully  that  her  aim  in  teaching  can  never  be  sepa- 
rated from  the  methods  by  means  of  which  she  may  hope  to 
attain  it.^ 

Testing  as  an  aim.  In  testing  a  class  it  is  easy  to  work  on 
the  assiunption  that  the  main  responsibility  lies  with  the 
pupils.  Such  an  attitude  breaks  down  the  proper  relation^ 
ship  between  teacher  and  pupils,  by  placing  the  class  on 
the  defensive.  This  need  not  happen  if  the  teacher  has 
previously  determined  upon  just  what  she  will  test  for,  and 
upon  a  plan  of  procedure.  It  is  not  the  teacher  alone,  but 
the  child  who  must  discover  errors  and  deficiencies  in  the 
work  done.  It  is  a  cooperative  undertaking,  therefore,  in 
which  all  join  in  a  complete  stock-taking,  preparatory  to 
the  next  move  forward. 

The  old-fashioned  teacher  tested  more  often  than  she 
taught,  and  that  mainly  for  facts.  Could  the  child  spell 
the  word,  diagram  the  sentence,  trace  the  military  cam- 
paign, —  yes  or  no?  She  tested  for  what  the  child  remem- 
^  See  chapter  n,  sections  2  and  3. 


THE  CLASS  RECITING  195 

bered,  and  not  for  how  he  had  learned  it,  or  what  he  could 
do  with  it.  In  the  modern  classroom  the  function  of  the 
test  has  become  much  broader.  Its  aim  is  to  get  behind 
the  mere  lack  of  infonnation  to  its  causes.  Hence  it  tries 
to  answer  such  questions  as:  What  does  the  pupil  know? 
What  of  the  assignment  does  he  not  know?  Why  did  he 
learn  facts  x  and  not  facts  y  f  Did  he  fully  understand  the 
assignment  (if  not  was  it  my  fault)  ?  Just  how  did  he  study 
his  lesson?  Did  he  try  to  memorize  when  he  should  have 
tried  merely  to  get  the  essential  meaning  and  facts?  Did 
he  go  to  the  right  sources  for  materials,  or  effectively  use 
those  at  hand?  Was  it  merely  lack  of  application  or  lack 
of  interest,  and  if  so,  why?  These  and  similar  detailed 
inquiries  will  find  out  just  what  the  child  does  and  does  not 
know,  what  he  can  or  cannot  do,  and  the  why  in  every  case. 

The  teacher  who  can  maintain  the  hearty  cooperation 
of  her  class  through  such  an  inquiry  has  accomplished  much 
in  the  art  of  teaching.  Much,  however,  that  is  possible  for 
all  teachers  who  will  work  to  convert  the  vague  aim  of 
"  testing"  into  such  concrete  and  specific  aims  as  are  here 
suggested. 

Teaching  as  an  aim.  In  testing,  the  teacher  is  trying  to 
find  out  things  for  herself,  things  which  she  may  use  not 
only  as  a  basis  for  judging  the  pupil's  efficiency,  but  mainly 
as  a  basis  for  her  own  positive  contribution  to  the  recita- 
tion through  her  instruction.  The  teaching  process  is  so 
extremely  varied  in  its  nature,  owing  to  the  ends  it  must 
meet,  that  in  this  brief  space  little  more  than  a  mere  enu- 
meration of  these  ends  can  be  imdertaken.  First,  teaching 
begins  at  the  point  where  help  is  needed,  and  proceeds  in 
the  general  direction  of  the  ends  set  forth  under  section  II, 
in  our  outline  above.  But  these  ends,  while  they  are  fun- 
damental, are  distant,  can  only  be  attained  in  noticeable 
degree  after  many  recitations,  and  cannot  be  substituted 


196  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

for  the  specific  end  to  be  attained  in  a  given  exercise.  More 
immediate  ends  are:  — 

1.  Self-expression,  which  must  cover  more  than  what  is 
foimd  in  books  or  teacher's  directions,  more  than  oral  or 
written  speech,  more  than  mere  fact.  There  must  be  room 
for  the  imagination  in  writing,  drawing,  story-teUing,  hand- 
work, dramatization,  etc.,  wherein  voice,  words,  gestures, 
bodily  movement,  facial  expression,  and  even  costimaing 
are  all  brought  into  play  to  convey  to  listeners  the  feelings 
and  thoughts  of  the  one  reciting.  Such  expression  leads  to 
moral,  social,  and  executive  growth. 

2.  Cooperation  and  competition  as  social  and  economic 
principles  may  be  thoroughly  estabhshed  in  the  minds  and 
habits  of  children  if  group  work  is  turned  definitely  to  such 
account.  The  principle  of  division  of  labor  may  be  effec- 
tively experienced  where  reports  on  individual  assignments 
all  contribute  to  the  development  of  a  central  idea,  or  where 
individual  pupils  each  perform  a  separate  part  in  making 
something  in  the  shop  or  laboratory.  Similarly  the  spirit 
of  fair  play  in  competition  can  be  taught  where  groups  are 
pitted  against  each  other  in  the  performance  of  some  task. 

3.  The  development  of  right  habits  of  work  is  another  spe- 
cific point  of  attack  for  the  teaching  process.  Very  few 
children  will  discover  for  themselves  that  chapter  headings, 
with  their  formal  subdivisions,  are  the  key  to  the  chief 
points  in  the  lesson.  There  is  a  best  procedure  in  all  kinds 
of  study,  from  bare  memorizing  of  spelling  to  writing  a 
story,  solving  a  problem  in  i>ercentage,  designing  a  hat,  or 
painting  a  picture.  As  has  been  pointed  out,^  this  best 
way  will  rarely  be  hit  upon  by  the  child  if  he  is  left  to  his 
own  resources.  It  is  an  ever  present  problem  which  must 
be  cared  for  in  that  part  of  the  recitation  which  is  devoted 
to  the  assignment  of  the  lesson. 

^  See  chapter  xm. 


THE  CLASS  RECITING  197 

Listening  or  observing  as  an  aim.  In  some  recitations 
the  teacher's  chief  function  will  be  that  of  auditor  and 
spectator.  It  is  often  a  great  temptation  to  do  the  talking, 
or  to  add  a  touch  to  a  drawing  when  one  sees  so  clearly 
what  is  needed,  and  there  are  times  when  such  help  should 
be  given.  On  the  other  hand  there  are  times  when  such 
help  will  destroy  the  child's  confidence  in  himself  and  put 
an  end  to  a  type  of  self-expression  that  is  highly  important. 
When  a  child  is  telling  a  story,  discussing  a  topic  in  history, 
describing  a  specimen,  or  arguing  a  point,  he  should  be 
heard  to  the  end.  If  he  is  writing,  drawing,  dramatizing,  or 
performing  an  experiment,  then  too  much  interference  by 
the  teacher  will  destroy  his  initiative,  and  the  final  product, 
though  it  may  be  better  for  the  teacher's  help,  will  not  be  the 
pupil's  work,  nor  will  he  feel  the  satisfaction  of  having 
originated  or  completed  the  task.  When  a  pupil  has  done 
well  in  a  recitation,  a  quick  acknowledgment  of  the  same 
by  the  teacher  will  usually  be  more  effective  at  the  time 
than  too  many  suggestions  about  how  it  could  have  been 
better.  There  is  a  proper  place  for  constructive  criticism 
of  a  child's  work,  but  so  is  there  for  quiet  sanction. 

Drill  as  an  aim.  Some  recitations  will  be  devoted  solely 
to  practice  or  drill  on  some  mental  or  physical  process,  such 
as  number  combinations,  verses,  location  of  important 
geographical  features,  writing,  drawing,  singing,  dancing, 
sewing,  carving,  etc.  Here  the  end  is  mental  or  physical 
skill,  and  the  process,  that  of  developing  a  specific  habit. 
The  aim  will  be  slightly  different  for  every  habit,  but  in 
all  cases  concentrated  attention,  with  frequent  repetition 
which  stops  short  of  serious  fatigue,  will  be  necessary,  and 
a  completely  mechanized  procedure  must  finally  result, 
else  all  the  practice  will  have  been  wasted. 

When  to  use  these  aims.  It  is  not  possible  to  say  just 
when  and  where  each  of  these  aims  and  processes  will  come 


198  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

into  play.  In  almost  every  recitation  there  will  be  testing, 
teaching,  listening,  and  drilling.  There  wiU  often  be  rapid 
and  frequent  movement  from  one  of  these  processes  to 
another,  and  back  again.  Similarly  the  pupils  will  be 
answering,  reciting,  and  practicing,  and  no  one  can  direct 
the  teacher  as  to  just  when  to  expect  one  or  the  other  of 
these  responses.  The  fact  is,  however,  that  these  are  all 
distinct  and  separate  functions,  and  the  teacher  should 
study  them  diligently  as  such.  The  result  of  proper  care 
in  their  use  by  the  young  teacher  will  be  teaching  habits 
which  will  place  a  reasonable  portion  of  the  responsibility  for 
the  success  of  the  recitation  upon  the  class,  prevent  an  un- 
due amount  of  bare  testing  at  the  expense  of  teaching,  make 
the  teacher  an  intelligent  auditor,  give  the  pupils  a  chance 
to  tell  what  they  feel  and  know,  insist  upon  a  due  amount 
of  inteUigent  practice  or  drill,  and  teach  them  how  to  study. 

Again  there  is  no  way  of  saying  when  appreciation, 
knowledge,  skill,  etc.,  will  be  the  aim  sought.  Certainly 
many  of  these  will  play  a  part  in  almost  every  recitation. 
To  know  just  what  each  one  means,  and  how  it  may  be 
attained,  will  undoubtedly  rationalize  the  teaching  process. 
There  is  much  too  httle  conscious  effort  in  the  direction  of 
training  for  intellectual  and  emotional  appreciation;  knowl- 
edge is  too  often  knowledge  what,  and  too  seldom  knowl- 
edge how  skill  is  too  rarely  of  the  physical  type,  and  too 
narrowly  intellectual;  physical  exercises  aim  too  indefi- 
nitely at  either  development  or  correction;  moral  growth 
is  too  often  either  ignored,  or  expected  as  a  result  of  moral- 
izing, whereas  its  problem  is  that  of  developing  specific 
habits  and  ideals  of  right  conduct;  executive  training,  train- 
ing for  leadership,  is  grossly  neglected;  and  intellectual  and 
social  initiative  are  more  often  suppressed  than  stimulated. 

These  aims  may  often  overlap  each  other,  but  they 
represent  definite  aspects  of  personaHty,  definite  points 


THE  CLASS  RECITING  199 

of  contact  with  the  world,  definite  sources  of  power  over 
ourselves  and  our  fellows,  definite  angles  from  which  we 
are  judged  by  society,  definite  lines  along  which  we  do  or 
do  not  contribute  to  human  happiness.  They  must  there- 
fore stand  in  the  teacher's  mind  as  the  ultimate  criteria  of 
the  effectiveness  of  her  work,  and  each  recitation  should 
be  held  to  one  or  more  of  these  accounts,  and  none  should 
be  overlooked  or  long  neglected. 

S.   The  plan  of  the  recitation 

In  every  recitation  there  are  two  distinct  parts:  —  the 
handling  of  the  lesson  that  has  been  prepared  for  the  occa- 
sion, and  the  assignment  of  a  new  lesson.  The  function  of 
the  assignment  is  mainly  that  of  teaching  how  to  study  the 
next  group  of  materials,  and  has  therefore  been  treated  in 
the  chapter  on  "The  Class  Studying."  Consequently  only 
a  few  words  as  to  its  place  in  the  recitation  plan  are  needed 
here.  The  assignment  will  be  long  or  brief,  general  or  de- 
tailed, according  to  the  nature  of  the  task  it  has  to  present. 
As  to  whether  it  will  come  at  the  beginning  or  end  of  the 
recitation  period  is  a  question  which  can  scarcely  be  set- 
tled by  a  general  rule.  There  are  times  when  the  assign- 
ment can  properly  come  at  the  beginning  of  the  period, 
as  when  it  has  no  intimate  connection  with  the  lesson  in 
hand.  Under  ordinary  circumstances  spelling  lessons,  drill 
on  number  combinations,  theme  writing,  etc.,  would  con- 
stitute such  cases.  Usually,  however,  the  end  of  the  period 
is  the  better  place  for  the  assignment,  for  the  reason  that 
the  lesson  just  recited  naturally  leads  up  to  and  presents 
problems  which  the  assignment  should  explain. 

The  plans  for  conducting  the  recitation  part  of  the  period 
will  vary  with  the  type  of  lesson  to  be  dealt  with,  ^  but  there 

^  For  a  fuller  consideration  of  types  of  lessons  see  Sti;ayer,  G.  D.,  ^4  Brief 
Course  in  the  Teaching  Process,  pp.  41-106;  McMurry,  F.,  The  Method  of 
the  Recitation;  Earhart,  L.  B.,  Types  of  Teaching. 


«00  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

are  a  number  of  problems  which  present  themselves  with 
suflficient  frequency  to  warrant  their  brief  consideration 
here.  Such  are  the  place  and  importance  of  interest,  a 
proper  use  of  the  textbook,  the  question  and  answer  method, 
the  place  of  the  lecture,  and  the  topical  method. 

The  place  and  importance  of  interest.  This  subject  has 
been  dealt  with  elsewhere,  and  consequently  it  is  only 
necessary  to  apply  here  what  has  already  been  said  in  an- 
other connection  on  page  88  ff. 

Common  abuses  of  the  textbook.  The  very  excellent  text- 
books which  we  have  in  such  abundance  have  been  invalu- 
able in  systematizing  the  work  of  instruction.  They  have 
made  for  definiteness  in  assignment,  and  relieved  the 
teacher  of  the  endless  task  of  collecting  and  organizing 
material  for  her  classes.  On  the  other  hand,  they  have  at 
the  same  time  been  a  source  of  evil.  The  lazy,  indifferent, 
or  ignorant  teacher  has  learned  to  rely  solely  upon  the  text 
as  the  source  of  materials  for  her  class,  and  has  therefore 
grossly  neglected  the  important  duty  of  supplementing  the 
one  small  book  which  was  designed  as  a  mere  outUne.  The 
consequence  has  been  much  memoriter  work  on  the  part 
of  the  pupils,  along  with  which  has  developed  the  assump- 
tion that  the  facts  of  the  text  are  all  there  are  on  the  sub- 
ject. Such  abuses  of  the  text  have  stunted  the  child's  ini- 
tiative in  seeking  sources  outside  the  book,  and  so  in  apply- 
ing the  knowledge  and  skill  of  the  schoolroom  to  problems 
of  life  outside.  These  are  not  imaginary,  but  rather  very 
real  dangers  for  every  teacher  who  does  not  hold  herself 
strictly  to  account  in  these  respects. 

Textbook  use  and  teacher  efficiency.  Tliere  are  proper 
uses  of  the  text,  however,  which  can  be  learned,  and  which, 
when  applied,  make  the  text  an  indispensable  tool.  First, 
the  teacher  should  remember  that  she  is  teaching  her  class, 
and  that  she  is  teaching  a  subject,  not  a  book;  but  that  the 


THE  CLASS  RECITING  «01 

text  presents  some  essential  facts,  and  suggests  a  plan  of 
organization  for  others  which,  together  with  the  class,  she 
may  gather  from  other  sources.  Second,  the  text  material 
offers  a  convenient  means  of  assigning  a  definite  formal  task 
to  which  all  pupils  should  be  held  responsible.  Thirdly, 
the  material  of  the  text  is  hkely  to  present  most  of  the  real 
difficulties  with  which  the  class  will  have  to  cope  in  their 
study  of  the  subject,  such  as  new  words,  difficult  points  in 
an  explanation,  etc.  Finally,  one  chief  function  of  the  text- 
book is  to  bring  out  clearly  the  plan  of  organization  of  the 
matter  presented.  A  mastery  of  this  technique  is  impor- 
tant, since  in  ordinary  books,  journals,  and  newspapers 
such  helps  are  much  rarer. 

The  topical  plan  of  recitation.  To  be  able  to  stand  before 
an  audience  and  think  logically  while  speaking  is  all  too 
rare  an  accomplishment,  and  one  by  which  the  world  sets 
much  store.  There  is  no  school  exercise  so  well  calculated 
to  develop  this  ability  as  is  the  topical  recitation.  As  a 
method  it  is  applicable  from  the  very  beginning  to  the  end 
of  school  work,  scarcely  more  in  proportion  at  one  age  than 
at  another.  The  six-year-old  will  speak  more  briefly  and 
on  a  different  topic,  but  with  the  same  problem  of  clear, 
logical,  forceful  presentation  before  him  as  has  the  college 
student  in  his  advanced  discussions. 

The  teacher's  task  in  the  two  cases  differs  more  in  degree, 
therefore,  than  in  kind.  In  both  cases  she  wiU  see  to  it  that 
the  child  speaks  in  his  own  language,  rather  than  in  that  of 
the  book;  that  he  tells  what  he  thinks  or  knows,  rather  than 
what  some  author  thinks  (except  of  course  when  reporting 
what  he  has  read);  that  he  sticks  to  his  subject;  that  every 
point  made  bears  proper  relationship  to  the  line  of  thought; 
that  his  language  shall  be  clear  and  grammatically  cor- 
rect; that  he  shall  not  consume  more  than  a  reasonable 
amount  of  time;  that  he  makes  it  a  point  to  interest  those 


202  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

listening;  that  he  si>eaks  to  his  class,  and  not  to  the  teacher 
alone  or  to  the  floor;  that  he  stands  or  sits  erect,  and  sp>eaks 
in  good  voice;  and  that  he  stops  when  he  is  through. 

To  accomplish  these  miany  ends  she  will  not  lavish  too 
much  or  too  Uttle  praise  for  a  good  recitation,  and  nega- 
tive criticism  or  sharp  rebuke  will  be  similarly  adminis- 
tered. She  will  rarely  stop  a  pupil  except  at  a  natural  pause, 
and  will  often  tide  him  over  by  putting  a  question  or  by 
permitting  another  pupil  to  carry  forward  the  discussion. 
At  the  close,  however,  aU  types  of  errors  in  language,  or  in 
fact,  or  in  length  or  brevity  of  speech,  may  be  brought  to 
light  by  questions,  to  the  end  that  the  child  may  fully 
judge  the  success  of  his  presentation. 

The  lecture  plan  of  recitation.  In  the  elementary  school 
there  can  be  httle  if  any  formal  lecturing,  but  there  is  room 
for  much  simple  telling,  which  wiU  usually  occupy  a  subor- 
dinate place  during  the  recitation  period.  Almost  every 
lesson  needs  to  be  supplemented  by  the  teacher  who  keeps 
an  ever  changing  and  growing  stock  of  stories,  anecdotes, 
and  facts  which  she  introduces  as  additional  material  in 
the  recitation.  The  purpose  of  such  kind  of  lecturing  is 
varied.  At  one  point  it  will  add  definitely  to  the  number  of 
facts  brought  out  by  the  class,  at  another  it  will  illustrate 
a  point  with  some  familiar  incident,  at  another  it  will  ex- 
plain and  demonstrate  the  working  of  a  principle,  at  an- 
other it  will  deliberately  provoke  laughter  with  some  per- 
tinent anecdote  or  story  which  aims  partly  to  drive  home 
a  point,  and  partly  to  cause  a  real  relaxation. 

The  question  and  answer  plan  of  recitation.  In  almost 
every  kind  of  recitation  the  question  and  answer  will  play 
a  large  part.^   Even  where  a  topic  has  been  recited  upon, 

1  For  a  careful  description  and  critical  study  of  questioning,  see  Stevens, 
Romiett,  The  Question  as  a  Measure  of  Efficiency  in  Instruction^  Teacherg 
College  Contributions,  No.  48  (1912). 


THE  CLASS  RECITING  20S 

questions  will  usually  follow  to  clear  up  certain  points,  or 
to  supplement  what  has  been  said,  and  where  the  discussion 
has  been  mainly  by  the  teacher  the  problem  cannot  wisely 
be  left  till  by  questions  she  has  assured  herself  that  what 
she  has  been  saying  has  been  fully  comprehended  and  crit- 
ically evaluated  by  the  class. 

Two  types  of  questions.  There  are  two  general  types  of 
questions,  one  of  which  is  designed  to  test  memory  for 
facts  obtained  from  books  or  observation,  the  other  to  test 
the  chiW's  power  to  interpret  and  use  facts.  Both  are  es- 
sential in  practice.  The  one,  however,  is  easy  to  formu- 
late, is  Kkely  to  lead  to  an  overemphasis  of  book  learning, 
to  encourage  mere  guessing,  and  to  discourage  originaKty. 
The  other  is  more  diflScult  to  formulate,  but  stimulates 
thought,  and  leads  to  a  testing  out  of  facts  remembered  by 
applying  them  in  practical  situations.  The  former  is  too 
frequently  overworked  in  the  classroom,  because  it  is  an 
easy  way  to  get  a  lively  response  from  the  class.  We  should 
not  have  fewer  fact  questions  perhaps,  but  we  should  have 
more  of  the  kind  that  put  the  pupil  on  his  own  initiative, 
where  he  must  exercise  judgment  as  well  as  memory. 

Forms  of  questions.  The  form  of  the  question  is  of  fun- 
damental importance.  The  direct  question,  to  be  answered 
by  yes  or  no,  such  as:  "Is  hail  made  of  frozen  raindrops.? " 
is  poor  because  it  stimulates  guessing  at  the  answer.  By 
the  law  of  chance  a  child  will  answer  correctly  fifty  out  of 
every  one  hundred  such  questions  without  knowing  a  soli- 
tary fact  involved.  By  a  correct  guess  the  pupil  often  de- 
ceives himself  into  thinking  that  he  really  knew  the  an- 
swer. The  alternative  question,  such  as,  "Was  Jefferson  a 
strict  or  a  loose  constructionist  .f* '*  has  all  the  evils  of  the 
direct  question,  with  no  added  virtues,  and  neither  is  im- 
proved upon  by  the  leading  question  so  often  denied  an 
answer  in  court.   It  is  worse  than  a  waste  of  time  to  ask 


204  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

"Is  the  magnetic  north  pole  a  Httle  different  from  the 
most  northern  point  on  the  earth?  "  for  what  child  would 
be  so  stupid  as  to  guess  "  No  "  in  answer. 

The  real  test  of  good  questioning.  Questions  formulated 
in  these  ways  do  not  require  the  child  to  think,  or  to  reor- 
ganize his  previous  experience  in  any  way,  and  yet  these 
are  the  real  tests  of  the  value  of  questions  in  the  recitation. 
There  are  two  aspects  of  the  problem  to  be  studied,  the 
question  and  the  answer.  There  are  certain  principles 
which  the  teacher  will  do  well  to  follow:  First,  the  ques- 
tion must  have  scope  enough  to  provoke  thought,  to  do 
which,  it  must  (a)  be  clear  and  concise;  (b)  challenge  the 
attention  of  all  members  of  the  class;  (c)  be  properly  re- 
lated to  previous  and  succeeding  questions,  and  (d)  it  must 
not  be  too  long  or  too  compHcated.  Furthermore,  the 
question  should  be  asked  in  an  ordinary  conversational 
tone,  it  should  not  be  repeated,  and  should  be  fully  stated 
before  being  addressed  to  any  particular  pupil.  Pupils  should 
be  questioned  in  no  regular  order,  and  care  will  be  necessary 
CO  prevent  most  questions  being  answered  by  those  who 
habitually  make  good  replies. 

What  to  do  with  answers  is  little  less  a  problem  than 
how  to  provoke  them.  Certainly  the  teacher  must  be  an 
attentive  listener,  taking  care  not  to  assist  the  speaker  too 
much  by  look  or  gesture  which  seems  to  say  yes,  go  on, 
or,  no  it  is  the  other  way,  etc.  A  few  common  errors  are: 
(a)  repeating  the  child's  answer  after  him;  (b)  jumping  at 
his  conclusion  without  permitting  him  to  finish  speaking; 
(c)  adding  to  his  answer  to  avoid  formulating  a  question  that 
will  bring  out  the  information  from  the  class;  and  (d)  permit- 
ting him  to  answer  a  different  question  from  the  one  asked. 

^.  Right  conditions  for  work 
What  has  been  said  on  this  subject  in  connection  with  the 


THE  CLASS  RECITING  205 

chapter  on  "The  Class  Studying"  appHes  almost  verbatim 
here.  The  teacher  needs  all  her  energy  for  her  class,  and 
should  suffer  as  few  distractions  as  possible.  Regularity, 
punctuality,  strict  adherence  to  assignments,  physical  con- 
veniences, all  materials  at  hand,  careful  preparation  for  the 
recitation  by  both  teacher  and  pupils,  all  need  to  be 
watched,  and  then  as  cheerful  and  as  wholesome  an  at- 
mosphere of  earnest,  rapid  work  as  is  possible  should  be 
the  teacher's  aim. 

5,  Chapter  summary 

In  this  chapter  we  have  discussed  the  nature  and  purpose  of  the 
recitation,  distinguished  between  the  teacher's  and  the  pupil's 
aims,  clarified  these  aims  by  the  use  of  illustrations,  and  showed 
when  and  where  they  should  be  used.  We  have  also  suggested 
various  general  plans  for  conducting  the  recitation,  and  the  con- 
ditions under  which  such  work  should  be  carried  on. 

In  doing  this  we  have  seen  that  managing  the  recitation  is  above 
all  the  real  test  of  teaching  skill.  The  first  essential  for  the  teacher 
is  to  know  specifically  what  it  is  she  expects  to  accomplish,  and  to 
see  that  the  pupil  knows  what  he  is  to  do  and  how  to  do  it.  She 
must  learn  to  distinguish  the  teaching  from  the  testing,  drilling, 
and  observing  processes,  and  know  when  and  where  each  will  best 
apply.  She  must  keep  in  mind  that  the  chief  thing  to  watch  is  the 
character  of  the  child's  responses,  and  his  ability  in  applying  the 
facts  or  skills  he  gains  from  study. 

In  formulating  plans  for  the  recitation,  the  importance  of  inter- 
est, that  is,  real  motive,  must  not  be  overlooked.  The  textbook 
serves  as  a  guide,  and  not  as  the  only  source.  The  use  of  the  top- 
ical plan  of  recitation,  the  use  of  question  and  answer,  and  the 
use  of  lecture  or  telling  methods  are  all  most  serviceable  where 
prop)erly  managed,  though  each  is  capable  of  abuse  and  no  plan  is 
successful  in  the  midst  oi  unnecessary  distractions. 

REFERENCES  FOR  ADDITIONAL  READING 

Betts,  G.  H.,  The  Recitation. 

Home,  H.  H.,  Stoty^TeUing,  Questioning,  and  Studying,  chap.  n. 

Strayer,  G.  D.,  The  Teaching  Process,  chaps,  iv  to  xii,  inclusive. 


206  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 


QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Explain  the  changes  that  have  taken  place  in  the  meaning  of  the  term 
recitation. 

2.  Why  is  "recitation  pjeriod"  a  better  term  for  present  use? 

3.  There  are  obvious  differences  between  a  spelling  recitation  and  a 
recitation  in  domestic  science.  From  the  standpoint  of  managing 
the  recitation  just  what  are  these  differences? 

4.  If  you  were  giving  an  explanation  of  the  aim  of  education,  how  would 
it  differ  from  your  statement  of  the  aim  of  the  recitation?  If  they  are 
different,  why? 

5.  What  difference  is  there,  if  any,  between  the  aim  the  teacher  will 
have  for  a  recitation  and  that  which  the  pupil  will  have?  Why? 

6.  In  how  far  does  a  full  statement  of  one's  teaching  aim  necessitate  a 
clear  understanding  of  the  method  to  be  used  in  carrying  out  that 
aim? 

7.  Under  what  circumstances  in  a  recitation  would  it  be  proper  for  the 
teacher  to:  test?  teach?  listen?  observe?  drill? 

8.  Explain  fully  how  testing  is  essential  in  most  recitations,  and  just 
what  function  such  testing  should  serve. 

9.  How  does  teaching  differ  from  testing:  in  its  purpose?  in  its  plan  of 
action? 

10.  What  does  it  mean  for  the  teacher  to  be  a  good  auditor? 

11.  Just  what  may  be  included  in  the  teaching  aim  "self-expression"? 

12.  Explain  the  possible  uses  and  abuses  of  the  textbook,  the  lecture 
topical,  and  question-and-answer  plans  of  conducting  the  recitation. 


CHAPTER  XV 

TESTING  THE  EFFECTIVENESS  OF  THE  MACHINERY  AND 
THE  PROCESS 

OuTUNB  OF  Chapter 

1.  The  need  for  definite  knowledge  as  to  results  —  Previous  chapters  recapitulated  — 
Education  a  process  of  change  —  Tendency  in  education  away  from  generalities  —  The 
movement  has  been  slow. 

2.  The  things  to  be  measured  —  Membership  in  the  group  —  Attendance  and  discipline 

—  Interest  in  work  —  School  machinery. 

S.  The  means  for  measuring  these  results  —  Records  and  reports  —  The  examination 
as  a  means  of  measvu-ement  —  Criteria  as  to  examinations  —  Defects  in  examination  tests 

—  Variabihty  in  marking  illustrated. 

4.  The  use  of  standardized  scales  and  tests  —  The  beginning  of  comparative  school 
measurement  —  Use  of  the  standard  tests  —  Practical  use  of  these  tests. 

5.  Other  means  of  measuring  results  —  Qualities  which  are  hard  to  measure  —  De«rable 
schoolroom  standards. 

6.  Summary  of  Part  III  —  References  —  Questions. 

1.  The  need  for  definite  knowledge  as  to  results 

Previous  chapters  recapitulated.  Thus  far  we  have  at- 
tempted to  set  forth,  in  Part  I,  the  nature  of  the  manage- 
ment problem  by  a  discussion  of  the  meaning  and  aim  of 
education,  how  the  aim  functions  in  practical  management, 
and  the  nature  of  the  different  factors  with  which  manage- 
ment has  to  deal.  In  Part  II  these  facts  and  principles  were 
brought  to  bear  upon  a  consideration  of  the  child  as  the 
central  object  of  management,  how  he  is  to  be  brought  into 
contact  with  school  conditions,  and  the  problems  of  attend- 
ance, order  and  discipline,  punishments,  and  incentives  for 
study.  In  Part  III  the  machinery  and  processes  by  which 
these  aims  and  ideals  are  to  be  wrought  into  concrete  changes 
in  child  life,  e.g.,  how  the  school  is  to  be  organized,  the  spe- 
cial problems  of  grading  and  promotion,  the  making  and 
use  of  curricula  and  daily  time  schedules,  and  how  to  direct 
the  study  and  recitation  processes,  have  been  treated  at 
some  length.   It  remains  for  us  to  consider  here  the  ques- 


k 


208  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

tion  of  how  we  are  to  know  definitely  that  our  machinery 
and  processes  are  turning  our  actual  results. 

Education  a  process  of  change.  We  have  been  thinking 
so  far,  to  a  large  extent,  in  terms  of  certain  biological, 
psychological,  sociological,  and  economic  facts  and  princi- 
ples, and  have  attempted  to  lay  down  fairly  definite  rules 
of  action.  Undoubtedly  these  are  the  basic  sciences  upon 
which  education  must  build,  but  they  are  not  the  only  sci- 
ences needed.  Certainly  we  are  working  with  phenomena  of 
these  types,  but  we  are  also  working  with  other  phenomena 
which  are  more  properly  classified  as  educational.  Medicine 
deals  with  chemical,  physiological,  anatomical,  and  hygienic 
phenomena,  but  when  a  physician  is  trying  to  do  a  certain 
thing  with  these  phenomena  known  as  doctoring,  we  refer 
to  the  facts  about  this  practice  as  medical  phenomena.  So 
in  education,  however  much  we  may  know  of  individual 
nature,  and  of  the  social  and  economic  claims  upon  it,  we 
have  still  to  reckon  with  the  phenomena  created  by  the 
attempt  of  the  teacher  to  direct  the  growth  of  the  child 
and  to  prepare  him  to  meet  these  claims.  When  we  have 
taught  a  child  we  have  produced  a  change  in  him.  \Miat  is 
the  nature  and  extent  of  the  change.'* 

Tendency  in  education  away  from  generalities.  For  cen- 
turies the  world  has  recognized  educational  phenomena,  and 
has  built  up  splendid  philosophies  of  education,  but  only 
recently  has  there  been  any  attempt  to  speak  of  the  prod- 
ucts of  school  training  in  any  save  the  most  general  terms. 
We  say  we  are  training  the  child  with  respect  to  memory, 
reason,  morals;  that  this  pupil  is  doing  well,  that  one  better; 
and  that  this  one  shows  refinement,  culture,  or  poHsh.  Only 
recently,  though,  have  we  frankly  faced  the  question,  — 
What  is  the  nature  and  extent  of  these  various  products 
which  we  call  education.'^ 

This  new  attitude  has  been  brought  about  by  the  in- 


TESTING  MACHINERY  AND  PROCESS         209 

creasing  complexities  which  have  been  forced  upon  the 
school  as  a  result  of  the  vast  economic  and  social  changes 
of  the  past  few  decades.  The  cost  and  the  importance  of 
education  have  become  too  great  to  be  any  longer  entrusted 
to  haphazard  methods,  and  as  a  consequence  the  school  has 
been  compelled  to  learn  how  to  take  stock  of  its  achieve- 
ments, and  as  far  as  possible  to  do  so  in  quantitative  terms. 
The  movement  has  been  slow.  The  teaching  profession 
was  extremely  slow  to  appreciate  and  to  respond  to  this 
need.  Scientific  method  made  headway  in  every  phase  of 
commerce,  industry,  and  farming  before  it  was  applied  to 
education.  But  as  the  new  studies  and  new  activities  and 
aims  began  to  find  place  in  the  school,  the  problem  of  evalu- 
ating each  new  item  was  forced  upon  us,  so  that  no  choice 
was  left  but  to  try  to  say  what  each  was  worth.  It  was  in 
the  midst  of  these  conditions  that  a  new  type  of  educational 
leadership  was  developed,  which  set  for  itself  the  task  of 
applying  scientific  method  to  the  measurement  of  educa- 
tional processes  and  products. 

2.  The  things  to  be  measured 

Membership  in  the  group.  We  say  that  education  means 
physical,  social,  and  moral  eflSciency,  and  that  to  educate 
means  to  produce  changes  in  the  individual  to  these  ends. 
To  accomplish  this  the  child  must  first  of  all  become  a 
member  of  the  school  group.  How  shall  we  know  when  this 
has  been  accomplished?  The  fact  that  John  causes  us  no 
trouble,  that  he  is  quiet  and  studious,  that  he  plays  with 
the  other  children,  does  not  tell  us.  Let  us  ask  rather:  Is  he 
polite,  gentle,  and  generous,  in  his  relationship  to  others? 
and  then  answer  by  citing  specific  instances  of  politeness, 
gentility,  and  generosity,  or  cases  where  he  failed  in  these 
respects.  Does  he  cooperate  readily  and  effectively  in  group 
work  and  group  play?  If  so,  he  not  only  knows  how  to  keep 


210  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

his  place  in  line,  to  be  a  good  member  of  a  team  at  play,  to 
fill  his  place  in  the  dramatized  recitation,  to  keep  his  part 
of  the  room  neat  and  orderly,  to  help  collect  and  distribute 
materials,  but  he  does  these  things  promptly  and  accurately. 
Is  he  learning  to  lead  as  well  as  to  follow  the  group?  If  so 
he  suggests  games  to  be  played,  gets  himself  chosen  as  a 
leader,  occasionally  brings  public  opinion  of  the  group  to 
bear  upon  an  unruly  member,  gives  directions,  not  orders, 
etc.  It  is  the  answer  to  these  and  a  thousand  other  specific 
questions  that  definitely  defines  a  child's  membership  in 
his  group. 

Attendance  and  discipline.  We  say  the  child  must  attend 
school  regularly.  What  percentage  of  the  full  time  does  that 
mean,  not  only  on  the  average  for  the  entire  class,  but  for 
each  pupil  as  well.'*  What  is  the  influence  of  a  given  degree 
of  irregularity  in  attendance  upon  work  in  arithmetic,  his- 
tory, etc.?  Are  the  retarded  children  regular  or  irregular  in 
attendance? 

Maintaining  good  order  and  punishing  offenders  have 
always  been  regarded  as  essential.  Does  the  "pin-fall"  type 
of  order  produce  real  freedom  for  work,  or  is  it  repressive? 
Cite  cases  to  illustrate.  For  each  case  of  disorder,  try  to 
state  whether  it  was  due  to  lack  of  knowledge,  forgetf ulness, 
mischief,  or  malice.  What  effect  has  the  case  on  the  offender 
and  on  the  class?  Exactly  how  should  it  be  dealt  with? 

Interest  in  work.  We  say  the  work  of  the  school  should  be 
interesting,  but  how  often  do  we  try  to  find  out  exactly  why 
a  child  is  more  interested  in  one  subject  than  in  another. 
We  often  say  that  this  is  a  more  interesting  subject  than 
that.  We  should  try  to  find  out  why.  Why  is  the  multipli- 
cation table  interesting  to  one  pupil  and  not  to  another? 
If  one  pupil  can  find  an  incentive  for  studying  grammar, 
then  we  should  study  that  child  to  find  out  what  the  incen- 
tive is,  and  then  try  to  use  it  elsewhere. 


TESTING  MACHINERY  AND  PROCESS  211 

School  machinery.  We  insist  upon  reducing  certain  school 
practices  to  routine.  Just  how  much  time  is  consumed  in 
getting  the  children  into  and  out  of  the  building,  in  collect- 
ing and  distributing  wraps  and  supplies,  and  with  what 
regularity  are  such  standards  maintained?  To  what  extent 
are  habits  of  neatness  about  desks  established,  when  judged 
by  the  number  of  daily  reminders  to  delinquents? 

We  spend  much  time  and  worry  over  promotions.  Just 
how  accurately  is  each  pupil  classified  in  each  of  his  sub- 
jects? Whenever  he  is  much  ahead  of  his  class  he  is  losing 
time,  and  when  he  is  too  much  behind  he  is  working  under  a 
handicap. 

So  we  could  go  on  almost  indefinitely  inquiring  about  the 
curriculum,  the  daily  program,  handling  the  study  and 
recitation  processes,  asking  specific  questions,  answers  to 
which  describe  or  define  in  concrete,  often  in  quantitative 
terms,  some  particular  activity  which  the  school  aims  to 
perfect.  The  more  one  tries  to  bring  the  customary  general 
aims  of  culture,  moral  development,  etc.,  down  to  where 
they  can  be  thought  of  in  terms  of  what  they  do,  and  of  what 
it  takes  to  produce  them,  that  is,  in  terms  of  what  is  actu- 
ally going  on  in  the  school,  the  more  one  is  convinced  that 
there  are  very  few  educational  results  or  products  that  can 
not  be  measured  rather  definitely,  for  after  all  culture  and 
moral  eflBciency  are  more  than  vague  qualities  of  soul.  They 
are  practical  modes  of  behavior,  which  rest  upon  innumer- 
able specific  habits,  and  innumerable  bits  of  knowledge, 
both  of  which  can  in  most  cases  be  singled  out  and  measured. 
What  children  have  learned  must  show  somewhere  in  their 
behavior.  If  it  does  not,  then  no  evidence  exists  that  they 
have  learned  it.  If  a  child  has  improved  in  writing  he  writes 
better  than  he  did  before;  if  he  has  improved  in  attendance, 
figiu-es  will  show  how  much;  if  he  has  improved  in  leadership 
he  will  be  seen  directing  others  in  play,  and  oflFering  sugges- 


212  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

tions  about  how  to  dramatize  the  lesson  or  how  to  find  some 
new  facts  about  the  habits  of  the  frog  that  is  under  discus- 
sion in  nature  study.  Most  of  these  things  that  go  to  make 
up  culture,  or  physical,  social,  and  moral  efficiency,  are  not 
so  very  vague  when  we  come  to  look  for  them  in  these  forms. 

3.  The  means  for  measuring  these  results 

Records  and  reports.  Until  recently  the  supervisor  has 
seldom  asked  the  teacher  to  report  on  more  than  two  or 
three  things  that  are  not  directly  connected  with  children's 
studies.  They  asked  for  records  of  attendance,  punishments, 
and  progress  in  studies.  The  formal  examination  was  used 
for  measuring  the  latter,  while  the  bare  figures  from  the  daily 
register  told  of  attendance  and  punishments.  To-day,  how- 
ever, we  wish  to  measure  all  the  wide  variety  of  processes 
and  results,  of  which  those  suggested  above  are  but  typical. 
For  this  purpose  the  examination  is  stiU  useful,  but,  in 
addition,  careful  records  of  many  things  not  reached  by 
ordinary  examinations  are  being  kept,  and  from  these 
records  standards  and  norms  are  being  worked  out,  by 
means  of  which  the  teacher  may  quickly  and  effectively 
determine  the  progress  her  pupils  are  making.  To  these  two 
means  there  is  to  be  added,  perhaps  the  most  effective  of  all, 
the  standardized  tests  and  scales.  To  use  any  one  of  these 
means  effectively  the  teacher  must  understand  it,  know  where 
and  when  to  use  it,  and  the  meaning  of  the  results  obtained. 

The  examination  as  a  means  of  measurement.  Though 
susceptible  of  many  abuses,  the  examination  can  serve  two 
important  functions  in  teaching.  In  the  first  place,  it  can 
be  made  to  test  results  of  teaching  as  they  appear  in  the 
forms  of  habits  and  knowledge.  In  the  second  place  it  has 
a  rather  definite  educative  value  in  itself. 

As  a  test  of  a  child's  skill  or  knowledge  the  examination 
is  designed  to  find  out  what  the  child  does  not  know  about 


TESTING  MACHINERY  AND  PROCESS  21S 

the  subject,  in  order  that  the  question  of  what  next  to  teach 
may  be  dealt  with.  In  this  the  examination  is  distinguished 
from  the  informal  test,  given  as  a  part  of  the  ordinary  reci- 
tation, where  the  aim  is  to  bring  to  light  and  to  clear  up  the 
temporary  difficulties  within  a  certain  narrow  field.  The 
examination  is  exhaustive,  and  its  results  are  quite  as  fully 
a  measure  of  the  final  effectiveness  of  the  teacher's  work  as 
of  the  children's  study. 

The  educative  value  of  such  experience  lies  in  the  fact 
that  it  furnishes  a  motive  (though  not  the  best)  for  carrying 
important  processes  to  a  higher  degree  of  perfection,  and  for 
making  a  more  careful  organization  of  the  essential  facts. 
In  focusing  attention  upon  these  things  the  child  not  only 
learns  the  things  that  it  is  important  he  should  learn,  but 
he  receives  training  in  how  to  get  at  the  essential  things  in 
his  studies. 

Criteria  as  to  examinations.  The  teacher  needs  to  know 
how  to  conduct  examinations  that  wiU  achieve  these  results. 
For  this  there  are  at  least  a  few  criteria  which  may  be  uni- 
versally followed.  First  of  all,  one  should  decide  exactly 
what  the  examination  is  to  find  out,  and  then  formulate 
the  questions  to  those  ends.  In  most  examinations  there 
will  be  two,  and  in  some  cases  three  types  of  questions.  All 
examinations  wiU  call  for  facts  or  information,  and  for  the 
interpretation  or  application  of  those  facts,  and  in  some 
studies  there  will  be  questions  involving  execution.  Over- 
emphasis on  any  one  of  the  forms  is  entirely  possible.  The 
questions  should  always  be  clearly  stated,  and  the  test 
should  cover  the  entire  field.  Examinations  should  never 
be  held  over  a  class  as  a  threat,  nor  should  their  results  be 
used  as  the  sole  basis  for  deciding  the  classification  of  chil- 
dren. The  examination  should  not  replace  the  briefer  and 
more  frequent  test.  Finally,  it  should  ordinarily  be  in  writ- 
ing, and  the  class  should  know  that  it  is  coming. 


214  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

Defects  in  examination  tests.  There  are  important  diflS- 
culties  in  the  way  of  using  examinations,  part  of  which  lie 
in  the  fact  that  the  questions  are  too  often  not  formulated 
according  to  these  criteria. 

1.  They  are  too  often  merely  factual,  and  so  test  the  child's 
memory  only,  or  they  ask  for  too  many  unimportant  details. 

2.  The  examination  is  often  made  too  long,  or  too  diflS- 
cult,  or  too  easy.  If  too  long  or  too  difficult  it  tends  to  dis- 
courage the  class,  and  if  too  easy  it  does  not  really  test  the 
class. 

3.  The  real  point  at  which  the  examination  falls  short 
is  in  the  fact  that  it  furnishes  no  adequate  basis  for  com- 
parison of  results  between  classes,  or  from  year  to  year,  for 
the  reason  that  there  is  no  common  standard  to  apply  in 
reading  papers.  Teachers  commonly  suppose  that  they  can 
mark  a  set  of  papers  all  on  the  same  basis,  but  investiga- 
tion has  shown  that  this  is  not  at  all  true.  ^ 

Variability  in  marking  illustrated.  For  example.  Starch 
and  EUiott  had  a  high-school  student  solve  a  simple  prob- 
lem in  plane  geometry  and  gave  his  answer  to  forty-nine 
competent  geometry  teachers  to  grade  on  the  scale  of  0  to 
12 J.  Their  grades  were  as  follows:  — 

9  gave  it  0  6  gave  it  6 

1  gave  it  2  2  gave  it  6^ 

2  gave  it  3  4  gave  it  7 
6  gave  it  4  1  gave  it  8 
2  gave  it  ^  2  gave  it  9 

10  gave  it  5        1  gave  it  10 
2  gave  it  5^       1  gave  it  12^ 

The  range  here,  even  in  the  case  of  an  exact  problem  in 
geometry,  is  from  zero  to  perfect.  It  is  clearly  evident  that 

1  Starch  and  Elliott,  "Reliability  of  the  Gradmg  of  High-School  Work 
in  English":  in  School  Review,  vol.  xx,  pp.  442-57;  "Reliability  of  Grading 
Work  in  Mathematics,"  ibid,  vol.  xxi,  pp.  254-59;  "Reliability  of  Grading 
Work  in  History,"  ibid.,  vol.  xxi,  pp.  676-81. 


TESTING  MACHINERY  AND  PROCESS  215 

these  forty-nine  teachers  were  looking  at  very  different 
aspects  of  that  paper.  Some  looked  at  the  form,  some  at 
the  spelling,  some  at  carelessness,  some  at  the  amomit  of 
absolute  accuracy,  some  gave  it  the  advantage  of  the 
doubt,  etc.  An  examination  of  these  studies  by  Starch  and 
Elliott  must  fully  convince  us  that  the  results  of  ordinary 
examinations  cannot  serve  as  an  adequate  basis  for  pro- 
motion, or  for  the  comparison  of  one  school  or  class  with 
another.  With  the  growing  complexity  of  our  educational 
problems  such  comparisons  are  absolutely  essential,  other- 
wise sixth-grade  ability  in  one  school  cannot  mean  sixth- 
grade  ability  in  another.  Every  one  who  has  seen  chil- 
dren enter  a  school  from  some  other  city  or  district  knows 
of  the  frequency  with  which  such  children  have  to  be  en- 
tirely reclassified,  and  that  because  grade  two  or  grade 
five  in  one  school  was  not  the  same  as  grade  two  or  five  in 
another.  Nor  can  they  ever  be  until  we  fiind  a  more  defi- 
nite standard  for  measuring  the  results  of  school  work. 

4.   The  use  of  standardized  scales  and  tests 

If  anything  like  reliable  comparative  studies  of  the 
achievement  of  children  in  different  schools  are  to  be  made, 
—  studies  so  essential  to  any  broad  and  scientific  educa- 
tional policy,  as  well  as  to  effective  class  teaching,  —  some 
means  for  making  such  comparisons  has  to  be  found. 

The  beginning  of  comparative  school  measurement.  As 
early  as  1897,  1902,  1903,  and  1904,  Dr.  J.  M.  Rice  made 
some  extended  comparative  studies  of  the  results  of  a 
number  of  carefully  devised  tests  of  spelling,  arithmetic, 
and  language.^ 

These  were  given  in  a  large  number  of  city  school  sys- 

*  The  results  of  these  investigations  were  published  in  the  Forums  vol.  23, 
pp.  163-72,  and  409-19;  vol.  34,  pp.  281-97,  and  437-52;  vol.  35,  pp. 
269-93,  and  440-57. 


216  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

terns.  On  the  basis  of  the  results  he  declared  that  there  was 
Httle  or  no  relationship  between  good  spelling,  and  any  one 
of  the  methods  in  use;  little  or  none  between  poor  spelling 
and  foreign  parentage;  or  between  ability  to  spell  and  the 
amount  of  time  spent  on  the  subject.  His  findings  in  arith- 
metic and  language  were  equally  surprising.  The  greatest 
value  of  his  work  proved  to  be  the  impetus  it  gave  to  sci- 
entific studies  of  educational  achievements.  By  1908  there 
had  resulted  a  carefully  standardized  set  of  tests  for  the 
measurement  of  specific  arithmetic  abilities,^  and  in  1910 
the  first  complete  scale  for  measuring  the  quality  of  hand- 
writing 2  was  devised.  Since  then  there  have  been  com- 
pleted other  standard  tests  and  scales  for  the  measurement 
of  results  in  writing,  arithmetic,  composition,  reading, 
drawing,  and  speUing,  and  in  due  time  tests  for  history, 
civics,  grammar,  and  other  elementary  and  high-school 
studies  now  in  process  undoubtedly  will  be  perfected.  ^ 

Use  of  the  standard  tests.  It  is  not  the  function  of  a 
book  on  school  management  to  explain  the  theory  of  the 
process  of  constructing  or  using  such  tests,^  but  as  tools 
which  the  teacher  must  use  in  the  management  of  her 
instruction,  some  idea  of  their  practical  use  should  be 
given.  As  an  illustration  take  the  Thorndike  writing  scale,^ 
which  consists  of  a  series  of  specimens  of  children's  writing, 

^  Stone,  C.  W.,  Arithmetical  Abilities  and  Soine  Factors  Determining 
Them.  Teachers  College  Contributions,  no.  19  (1908). 

2  Thorndike,  "Handwriting":  in  Teachers  College  Record,  March,  1910. 

'  For  a  brief  note  on  all  the  eariier  efforts  in  these  lines  see  Johnson, 
Joseph  Henry,  "A  Brief  Tabular  History  of  the  Movement  Toward  Stand- 
ardization by  Means  of  Scales  and  Tests  of  Educational  Achievement  in 
the  Elementary  School  Subjects";  in  Educational  Administration  and 
Supervision,  vol.  n,  pp.  483-91  (October,  1916). 

*  The  best  book  for  the  teacher  on  the  use  and  meaning  of  the  standard 
tests  is  Monroe,  De  Voss,  and  Kelly,  Educational  Tests  and  MeasuremerUs. 
(Houghton  Miflain  Company,  1917.) 

^  This  scale  is  published  on  a  single  large  sheet,  and  for  sale  by  Teachers 
College,  New  York. 


TESTING  MACHINERY  AND  PROCESS        217 

which  have  been  so  arranged  that  their  qualities  are  rep- 
resented by  scores  of  0,  5,  7,  9,  11,  13,  15,  and  17.  That 
is,  the  specimens  of  value  9  are  exactly  as  much  superior 
to  those  of  value  7  as  they  are  inferior  to  those  of  value  11, 
etc.  To  measure  a  child's  writing,  therefore,  place  it  first 
under  one  and  then  another  of  these  specimens  till  finally 
the  one  is  found  which  it  most  nearly  resembles,  then  give 
it  that  score.  Such  scores,  or  grades,  have  a  universal 
meaning,  —  that  is,  a  paper  scored  by  a  standard  scale 
ought  to  rank  the  same,  regardless  of  where  or  by  whom 
scored,  and  hence  comparable  results  are  obtained.  The 
writing  scales  of  Ayres  ^  and  Freeman  ^  are  used  in  a  very 
similar  way.  The  use  of  composition  scales  ^  is  quite  as 
simple,  though  they  require  more  time.  They  are  made  up 
of  a  series  of  compositions,  with  values  assigned,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  writing  scales,  and  their  use  consists  in  com- 
paring the  composition  to  be  measured  with  those  on  the 
scale  till  one  of  equal  merit  is  found.  The  use  of  scales  and 
tests  for  the  other  subjects  is  no  more  difficult  than  this. 
All  may  be  used  by  teachers,  and  all  are  easily  available 
for  the  teacher  at  a  very  slight  cost.  Every  teacher  should 
obtain  copies  of  these  standard  tests,  and  familiarize  herself 
with  practical  ways  of  using  them,  and  learn  how  to  diagnose 
the  results.* 

*  Ayres,  L.  P.,  A  Scale  for  Measuring  the  EandwrUing  of  School  Children. 
(Russell  Sage  Foundation,  Publication  no.  113.) 

2  Freeman,  F.  N.,  The  Teaching  ofHandvmting.  (Houghton  Mifflin  Com- 
pany, 1914.) 

^  Hillegas,  Milo,  "A  Scale  for  the  Measurement  of  Quality  in  English 
Composition  by  Young  People";  in  Teachers  College  Records,  vol.  xm 
(September,  1912).  Also,  Ballou,  F.  W.,  Scales  for  the  Measurement  of 
English  Composition.  (The  Harvard-Newton  Bulletins,  no.  11,  September, 
1914,  Harvard  University.) 

*  Monroe,  De  Voss,  and  Kelly's  Educational  Tests  and  Measurements 
describe  each  test  and  tell  how  and  where  copies  may  be  obtained.  The 
cost,  either  singly  or  by  the  hundred,  is  small. 


«18  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

Practical  use  of  these  tests.  As  in  the  case  of  ordinary 
examinations  these  standard  tests  should  not  replace  the 
brief  test,  nor  need  they  necessarily  replace  the  examina- 
tion for  certain  purposes.  They  will,  however,  be  a  valuable 
check  on  examinations  for  purposes  of  promotion  or  re- 
classification, and  for  supervisory  and  administrative  pur- 
poses they  will  soon  become  indispensable.  They  show  up 
the  results  of  teaching  in  sufficiently  objective  form  so 
that  they  can  be  fuUy  understood  by  any  one  who  has  a 
simple  working  knowledge  of  the  tests.  This  has  untold 
advantages  to  every  school  officer.  The  administrator  may 
then  know  what  amount  of  education  he  is  getting  for  the 
money  expended,  the  supervisor  may  then  know  the  real 
effectiveness  of  the  curriculmn  and  the  extent  to  which 
reasonable  standards  are  being  attained  in  different  schools, 
and  the  teacher  may  know  from  the  way  in  which  her  re- 
sults compare  with  established  standards  just  how  effec- 
tive are  the  methods  and  devices  she  is  applying.  To  the 
pupil  also  they  set  certain  clearly  defined  goals  toward 
which  he  may  work.  His  own  past  record  stands  before 
him  as  something  definite  to  try  to  surpass,  while  the 
standard  for  his  grade  stands  as  a  constant  measure  of  his 
place  in  his  class.  Under  such  circumstances  a  child  will 
enjoy  comi>etition  with  himself.  A  writing  scale  hung  in 
the  room,  to  which  a  child  can  be  sent  at  any  time  with 
his  written  work,  will  prove  a  valuable  stimulus  to  care  in 
writing. 

5.  Otkef  means  of  measuring  results 

Qualities  which  are  hard  to  measure.  As  suggested 
above,  there  are  many  featiues  of  school  work  that  cannot 
be  checked  up  by  ordinary  examinations,  or  even  by  the 
best  improved  scales,  —  such  for  instance  as  neatness,  the 
movement  of  pupils,  blackboard  work,  light,  temperature 


TESTING  MACHINERY  AND  PROCESS         219 

of  room,  spoken  language,  correct  posture,  and  the  influ- 
ence of  tardiness,  ill  health,  etc.  To  get  some  check  on 
problems  of  this  character  is  extremely  desirable.  In  one 
school  we  find  a  cast-iron  system  of  classroom  mechanics, 
while  in  another  there  will  be  nearly  the  opposite.  In  one 
place  manners,  neatness,  and  correct  speech  and  posture 
are  carefully  guarded,  while  in  another  they  receive  little 
or  no  attention.  Some  kind  of  standards,  even  though  they 
may  not  be  applied  universally,  ought  to  be  developed  by 
every  teacher  for  her  own  use.  In  order  to  do  this  she 
must  set  about  studying  the  mechanism  of  her  school, 
with  a  view  to  working  out  the  very  best  way  to  operate 
every  detail,  and  when  that  best  way  is  found,  try  to 
develop  standards  of  performance  and  hold  herself  and  her 
pupils  responsible  for  living  up  to  them. 

To  do  this  the  teacher  will  need  to  study  her  own  and 
other  schools,  as  well  as  books  and  reports.  Systematic 
visiting  or  observing  of  other  schools  for  the  purpose  of 
comparing  her  own  with  the  practice  of  others  is  most  de- 
sirable. From  such  trips  the  teacher  should  carry  home  the 
best  ideas,  and  try  them  out  in  her  own  work.  From  books 
and  reports  of  investigations  she  will  gather  other  facts 
which  win  help  her  to  perfect  her  work.  In  one  school  she 
will  get  a  new  idea  about  handling  wraps  or  collecting 
papers,  in  another  she  will  discover  a  better  plan  for  de- 
veloping neatness  in  board  work  or  for  correcting  oral 
speech;  in  a  book  on  school  hygiene  she  will  learn  the 
proper  standards  for  ventilation,  temperature,  light,  seat- 
ing of  children,  etc.  She  will  perhaps  keep  a  chart  illus- 
trating correct  sitting  and  standing  positions,  and  watch 
to  see  how  i\;pidly  she  can  develop  habits  in  her  pupils 
that  will  bring  them  up  to  this  standard. 

Desirable  schoolroom  standards.  It  is  only  by  being 
everlastingly  on  the  alert  for  the  best  and  most  educative 


220  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

methods  that  one  can  hop)e  to  attain  a  reasonable  degree 
of  perfection  in  these  featm-es  of  school  work.  When  a 
teacher  has  decided,  then  the  next  step  is  to  discover  the 
least  amount  of  time  the  performance  should  consume,  and 
set  that  up  as  a  standard  to  be  maintained.  When  certain 
eflficient  monitors  have  been  able  to  collect  and  distribute 
supplies  or  wraps  in  a  given  time,  then  set  that  time  as  a 
standard.  If  James  has  placed  his  work  on  the  board  in  a 
neat  and  orderly  manner,  leave  it  on  the  board  a  few  days, 
caUing  attention  to  that  as  a  standard  performance.  WTien 
a  child  has  handed  in  a  neat  and  orderly  paper,  keep  it  for 
future  reference.  Comparing  with  past  records  is  a  good 
practice  for  both  teacher  and  pupil.  The  standard  for  at- 
tendance and  tardiness  should  always  be  100  per  cent  per- 
fect, as  it  should  also  be  for  clean  hands  and  faces. 

The  main  idea  to  be  insisted  upon  here  is  that  in  these 
processes,  just  as  in  writing,  spelling,  and  arithmetic,  we 
need  some  definite  standards  to  gauge  our  work  by.  Each 
of  these  processes  plays  its  part  in  the  sum  total  of  the 
child's  training.  Some  of  them  are  directly,  others  indirectly 
educative,  but  all  are  important,  and  it  is  the  teacher's  busi- 
ness to  maintain  each  at  its  very  best.  This  she  can  nev6r 
do  without  an  earnest  study  of  her  ways,  means,  and  re- 
sults. 

6.  Summary  of  Part  III 

In  Part  11  we  were  thinking  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  indi- 
vidual child  in  order  to  establish  the  idea  that  the  school  is  made 
up  of  and  for  individual  children.  In  this  part  we  have  thought  of 
the  child  in  his  relationships  to  the  group,  and  consequently  of  the 
problems  of  group  organization  and  control.  How  to  organize  and 
to  manage  the  physical  aspects  of  the  school,  the  children,  the  cur- 
riculum, the  day's  work,  the  study  and  recitation  processes,  and 
finally  how  to  measure  the  effectiveness  of  our  machinery  and  the 
processes  we  have  directed,  have  been  our  problems. 


TESTING  MACHINERY  AND  PROCESS  221 

In  our  examination  of  the  necessary  machinery  of  organization 
we  have  insisted  that  while  the  chief  purpose  of  all  such  machinery 
is  to  serve  as  a  means,  yet  there  is  no  reason  why  much  if  not  all  of 
it  shall  not  be  in  itself  educative  as  well. 

This  applies  throughout  our  discussion,  but  in  particular  to  the 
machinery  of  grading  and  promotion,  where  the  educative  value 
of  group  as  opposed  to  individual  teaching  is  especially  pointed  out. 
This  does  not  mean  that  individual  differences  are  ignored.  Quite 
the  opposite  in  fact,  for  the  most  essential  of  these  differences  are 
made  the  basis  of  the  grouping;  and  flexibility  of  the  plan,  in  terms 
of  these  differences,  is  likewise  provided  for. 

In  discussing  the  organization  of  the  curriculum  we  have  pointed 
out  the  distinction  between  the  traditional  and  the  modem  course 
of  study,  showing  that  to-day  social  and  pedagogical  principles 
determine  our  selection  and  organization  of  materials,  and  that  as 
a  consequence  the  curriculum  is  not  only  thoroughly  elastic  but  is 
in  a  constant  process  of  remaking. 

Our  study  of  the  daily  program  was  designed  to  clarify  the 
principles  involved  in  organizing  the  day's  work,  and  to  illustrate 
their  application  in  typical  situations.  The  problem  of  evaluating 
subjects,  of  programming  studies  in  terms  of  their  bearing  upon 
the  question  of  fatigue,  and  the  advantages  of  carefully  planned 
work  were  discussed  as  they  enter  into  the  practical  tasks  of  the 
day. 

In  outlining  plans  for  managing  the  group  at  study  special 
emphasis  was  laid  upon  the  idea  of  study  outside  as  well  as  inside 
the  school,  the  purpose  being  to  establish  the  largest  possible  num- 
ber of  specific  work  habits.  The  problems  of  assignment,  study, 
and  recitation  were  differentiated,  and  special  stress  laid,  first, 
upon  setting  the  class  to  work  at  specific  problems,  and  seeing  to 
it  that  they  had  a  real  motive  for  study;  and  second,  upon  directing 
them  in  methods  of  finding,  organizing,  and  verifying  facts. 

The  management  of  the  recitation  is  the  real  test  of  teaching 
efficiency.  The  teaching  aim  and  the  aim  of  the  learner  must  be 
clear,  and  plans  devised  for  their  attainment.  The  child's  methods 
of  work  and  the  character  of  his  response  are  to  be  the  teacher's 
cue  for  giving  directions.  Testing  is  not  to  replace  teaching,  drill 
is  not  to  be  overworked,  the  teacher  is  to  learn  the  art  of  listening 
and  to  avoid  telling  when  a  mere  suggestion  will  suffice,  and  chil- 
dren are  not  to  depend  solely  upon  textbooks. 


222  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

Finally,  we  have  discussed  the  whole  question  of  measuring  the 
efficiency  of  school  work.  Its  importance,  the  wide  variety  of  proc- 
esses and  products  to  be  measured,  and  methods  and  devices  for 
measuring  them  were  outlined.  Special  emphasis  was  placed  upon 
the  practical  value  of  statistical  ways  of  stating  values,  and  upon 
the  use  of  scientific  standards  and  scales. 

If  the  teacher  will  supplement  what  has  been  so  briefly  presented 
in  these  chapters  with  further  reading,  and  especially  with  careful 
observation  of  her  own  work,  it  is  believed  that  the  machinery  of 
school  management  will  take  on  a  new  meaning. 

REFERENCES  FOR  ADDITIONAL  READING 

Monroe,  De  Voss,  and  Kelly,  Educational  Tests  and  Measurements. 
Parker,  S.  C,  Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools,  chap.  xxn. 
Strayer,  G.  D.,  A  Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process,  chap.  xix. 
Thomdike,  E.  L.,  Edu/sation,  chap.  xi. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  What  are  some  of  the  school  processes  and  products  that  are  difficult 
or  impossible  to  measure  effectively.'* 

2.  It  has  been  said  that  the  school  has  to  deal  with  psychological,  bio- 
logical, sociological,  economic,  and  educational  phenomena.  Give 
examples  of  each  that  you  think  would  be  met  with  in  the  manage- 
ment of  a  school. 

3.  Explain  why  it  is  more  important  now  that  we  should  be  able  to 
measure  the  results  of  teaching  than  it  was  a  half  century  ago. 

4.  Why  has  the  teaching  profession  been  slow  to  undertake  a  scientific 
measurement  of  educational  achievement.'' 

6.  How  would  you  test  out  the  efficiency  of  the  following  plans:  — 
a.  For  entering  and  leaving  the  building.'' 
6.  For  distributing  and  collecting  wraps  and  supplies? 
c.  For  keeping  the  room  neat  and  orderly? 

6.  If  you  were  visiting  a  school  with  a  view  to  evaluating  its  results 
in  teaching  cooperation,  leadership,  politeness,  and  correct  speech, 
where  and  in  what  form  would  you  expect  to  find  the  necessary  facts 
to  work  by? 

7.  The  school  aims  to  produce  culture.  In  what  ways  would  you  look  in 
a  school  for  evidence  that  this  aim  is  being  achieved? 

8.  What  ends  should  the  formal  examination  serve?  How  does  the 
examination  differ  in  nature  and  purpose  from  the  test? 

9.  What  and  how  many  of  the  above  questions  are  fact  questions?  What 
ones  call  for  application  or  interpretation  of  facts? 


TESTING  MACHINERY  AND  PROCESS  223 

10.  State  the  most  important  ways  in  which  the  examination  is  inade- 
quate for  measuring  results  in  the  school. 

11.  What  have  investigations  shown  as  to  the  reliability  of  the  marks 
which  teachers  assign  to  examination  papers? 

2i4.  What  is  meant  bv  a  scale  for  measuring  the  results  of  teaching? 
Explain  the  advantage  of  such  an  instrument  over  the  ordinary 
examination. 


PART  IV 
THE  TEACHER  THE  INSTRUMENT 


^^Y 


CHAPTER  XVI 

THE  TEACHER'S  PEBSONALITY 

Outline  of  Chapter 

1.  The  problem  of  Part  IV.  — The  teacher  and  the  task  —  The  personal  question. 

2.  The  meaning  of  personality  —  The  nature  of  personality  —  Positive  and  negative 
tjrpes  —  Positive  and  negative  teachers  —  Frankness  and  sincerity. —  Sympathy — Tact  — 
Self-sacrifice  —  Optimism. 

S.  Making  the  personality  effective  —  Good  breeding' —  Personal  appearance  —  Good 
manners  —  Conversation  —  Correct  English  —  A  good  voice. 

4.  Training  for  personality  —  Practice  decision  —  Set  up  right  ideals  —  Develop  spe- 
cific habits  —  Observing,  learning,  growing. 

5.  Summary  —  Beferences  —  Questions. 

1.  The  Problem  of  PaH  IV 

The  teacher  and  the  task.  It  would  seem  that  there  is 
no  reward  too  great  for  society  to  pay  to  the  man  or  woman 
who  is  competent  to  bring  to  a  practical  realization  in 
the  school  the  ideas  and  principles  which  have  been  set 
forth  above.,  The  teacher  who  can  understand  and  appre- 
ciate child  life,  and  who  can  devise  a  scheme  of  organiza- 
tion and  management  such  that  a  natural  and  normal 
educative  process  will  result,  will  have  rendered  to  the 
children  individually  and  to  the  state  a  service  for  which 
neither  can  ever  fully  compensate.  The  task  which  has  been 
sketched  out  here  at  some  length  is  by  no  means  a  simple 
one.  From  the  standpoint  of  hard  work,  from  the  stand- 
point of  technical  knowledge  and  skill  demanded,  as  well  as 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  hi^[5r  human  values  involved,  it 
is  a  task  worthy  of  the  very  best  men  and  women  we  have. 

The  personal  question.  What  kind  of  man  or  woman 
must  I  be  if  I  would  enter  this  field  of  work?  is  the  ques- 
tion every  teacher  should  ask  herself.^  What  kind  of  man 

*  The  practical  importance  of  personality  in  the  teacher's  equipment 
has  been  brought  out  by  numerous  investigations,  all  of  which  have  shown 


228  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

or  woman  would  the  state  have  me  be?  Even  if  these  ques- 
tions could  be  fully  answered,  which  they  cannot  be,  it  is 
doubtful  if  our  ideal  teacher  would  ever  be  found.  Yet  it 
is  worth  while  to  try  to  set  forth  at  least  some  of  the  essen- 
tial elements  without  which  a  reasonable  hope  of  success 
is  impossible,  for  after  all  it  is  only  by  knowing  what  it  is 
we  wish  to  attain  that  we  are  able  to  work  intelligently 
toward  its  attainment.  It  is  merely  another  case  of  attempt- 
ing to  set  up  a  clear  aim,  and  to  establish  a  standard  or 
basis  for  measuring  our  own  efficiency. 

There  are  at  least  four  of  the  larger  aspects  of  this  prob- 
lem which  are  worth  considering  here.  First,  the  teacher's 
personality,  which  every  one  would  set  down  as  of  the  very 
first  importance;  second,  the  question  of  her  professional 
qualifications  and  growth;  third,  her  health  and  physical 
vigor;  and  fom-th,  her  relationships  with  those  with  whom 
she  must  work  and  her  ways  of  handling  the  details  of  her 
daily  tasks.  These  we  shall  treat,  in  order,  in  the  four 
chapters  of  this  last  part. 

2.  The  meaning  of  personality 

The  nature  of  personality.  It  is  not  necessary  here  to 
enter  upon  a  philosophical  discussion  of  personaUty,  or  to 
seek  for  a  very  exact  connotation  for  the  term.  We  all  use 
the  word  constantly,  and  know  roughly  and  for  practical 
purposes  what  it  means.  We  think  of  personality  as  some- 
thing we  possess.  We  say  of  a  man  that  he  possesses,  or  has, 
a  good  or  a  poor  personality,  and  commonly  include  in  the 
term  all  that  goes  to  make  up  what  the  man  really  means 
to  us.  If  his  worth  is  great  in  our  opinion,  then  we  believe 
him  to  be  thorou^y  trustworthy  in  every  way,  and,  in 

conclusively  that  a  strong  personality  is  one  of  the  chief  elements  in  suc- 
cess. For  a  r6simi6  of  such  studies  see  Fourteenth  Year  Book  of  the  National 
Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  part  n. 


THE  TEACHER'S  PERSONALITY  229 

addition,  that  he  is  energetic,  cheerful,  aggressive,  and 
above  all  gentle,  manly,  and  clean.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
grouch,  the  chronic  complainer,  the  man  without  a  pro- 
gram or  an  aspiration,  the  slouchy  and  iU-mannered  man, 
is  repulsive  to  us,  and  we  say  his  personality  is  weak  and 
disagreeable. 

Our  first  concern  is  with  the  extent  to  which  this  posses- 
sion is  inherited  or  acquired.  Such  a  question  cannot  be 
examined  at  any  length  here,  but  we  should  keep  in  mind 
one  thing,  viz.:  that  whatever  we  may  possess  by  inheri- 
tance must  undergo  a  process  of  development.  Biological 
investigations  show  that  environmental  factors  furnish 
the  conditions  in  which  this  development  takes  place,  and 
modify,  at  least  to  some  extent,  the  course  of  development. 
So  even  if  we  cannot  determine  what  characteristics  we 
shaQ  inherit,  we  can  to  a  large  extent  control  the  environ- 
ment in  which  our  development  shall  take  place,  which  is 
to  say  that  if  we  choose  to  do  so  we  can  improve  our  per- 
sonalities. This  is  the  all  important  point  here  for  us,  for 
if  improvement  were  not  possible  then  any  discussion  of 
the  subject  would  be  superfluous. 

What,  then,  is  our  problem  .^^  To  what  specific  ends  shall 
we  exercise  this  control  over  oiu*  surroimdings.?  What  traits 
or  qualities  of  our  personal  make-up  shall  we  attempt  to 
cultivate?  These  are  questions  which  every  teacher  should 
seriously  put  to  herself,  and  try  seriously  to  answer  in  terms 
of  well-established  habits,  attitudes,  and  ideals. 

Positive  and  negative  types.  We  are  all  familiar  with 
people  belonging  to  two  general  types  of  personalities,  the 
positive  and  the  negative.  The  possessor  of  the  one  is  an 
executive,  a  director  of  affairs;  that  of  the  other  is  a  follower, 
who  merely  fits  into  another  man's  program.  The  one  knows 
how  to  make  a  decision,  while  the  other  stands  forever  in 
doubt.   In  an  argument  the  one  goes  straight  to  the  point. 


/ 


230  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

dealing  only  with  essentials,  while  the  other  qualifies  and 
requalifies  every  statement  until  finally  he  has  drifted  quite 
clear  of  the  main  issue.  The  one  ventures  something  in  life; 
the  other  is  afraid  of  risk,  and  waits  till  the  fight  is  won 
before  he  is  quite  sure  which  side  he  believes  in.  Then,  un- 
conscious of  his  own  weakness,  he  tries  to  ride  to  victory. 
The  one  beHeves  in  something  and  knows  it;  if  the  other  has 
any  serious  convictions  he  does  not  seem  to  know  it.  When 
the  one  reads  or  travels  he  gains  in  power,  for  with  him  to 
know  means  to  act.  His  knowledge  is  dynamic.  With  the 
other  knowledge  means  at  best  accumulated  information 
only.  The  one  possesses  self-confidence,  and  inspires  others 
with  a  belief  in  his  ability  to  lead;  the  opinion  of  the  other 
is  rarely  offered  or  asked,  and  never  followed.  The  one  lays 
plans  for  action,  and  turns  up  a  chance  for  himself  in  life; 
the  other  follows  the  beaten  path,  and  waits  for  his  chance 
to  turn  up.  So  one  might  draw  an  endless  number  of  sim- 
ilar illustrations  from  practical  life,  and  everywhere  it  would 
be  the  same  picture  of  energy,  courage,  conviction,  and 
action,  versiis  weakness,  indecision,  and  inertia. 

Positive  and  negative  teachers.  To  be  sure  this  pictures 
the  extremes  of  the  two  types,  but  they  are  not  unfamUiar 
pictures  to  any  of  us.  We  know  them  both  in  the  poHtical 
world;  we  know  them  in  business;  we  know  them  in  rehgion; 
we  know  them  in  social  work;  we  know  them  in  law,  in 
medicine,  and  in  teaching.  The  positive  type  in  the  school- 
room rarely  sends  a  case  of  discipline  to  her  principal.  She 
is  not  afraid  to  tell  the  children  she  does  not  know.  Work  is 
not  drifting  in  her  room,  it  is  going  per  schedule.  Her  classes 
in  civics  learn  what  is  going  on  at  the  city  hall,  and  are 
familiar  with  the  practical  problems  of  their  own  city,  dis- 
trict, or  county  government.  The  ix)sitive  teacher  appears 
energetic,  and  seems  to  believe  in  her  work.  She  is  industri- 
ous, becomes  a  part  of  her  community,  and  is  sought  after 


THE  TEACHER'S  PERSONALITY  231 

by  other  communities.  On  the  other  hand,  the  negative 
type  of  teacher  is  constantly  consulting  her  principal  about 
trifling  details,  and  expects  him  to  take  care  of  all  cases  of 
discipline.  She  dodges  the  child's  question,  rather  than  ad- 
mit that  she  does  not  know.  The  program  in  her  room  is 
either  ironclad,  or  the  other  extreme.  Her  class  in  civics  will 
know  the  term  "mayor,"  but  not  what  their  own  mayor 
is  doing.  Such  a  teacher  dreads  the  visit  of  the  principal  or 
the  parent,  and  seldom  makes  a  serious  impress  as  a  mem- 
ber of  her  community. 

Frankness  and  sincerity.  The  essential  qualities  of  a  good 
personality  must  include  frankness  and  sincerity.  We  like 
the  man  or  woman  who  is  frank  and  honest,  and  we  dislike 
the  poser.  The  one  inspires  confidence,  the  other  mistrust. 
The  advice  of  the  one  will  be  Hstened  to  even  by  his  enemies, 
but  not  so  the  other.  Men  like  Lincoln  and  Gladstone,  men 
who  have  been  universally  loved  and  trusted  even  by  their 
enemies,  were  not  shammers  or  palaverers,  or  namby-pam  - 
bys  or  make-believes.  They  worked,  and,  when  necessary, 
fought,  in  the  open.  Sincerity  implies  loyalty.  Without 
loyalty  to  high  purpose,  and  to  the  policy  of  superior  school 
officers,  a  teacher  is  not  only  personally  miserable  but  ut- 
terly impossible  as  a  part  of  the  institution.  Sincerity  also 
implies  courage,  and  the  man  who  has  the  courage  of  his 
convictions  is  respected,  even  though  his  convictions  may 
be  wrong.  The  sincere  teacher  is  the  one  who  is  impartial 
in  her  work  with  children.  She  does  not  try  to  bluff  or 
frighten.  If  she  disagrees  with  an  order  from  her  principal 
she  may  protest,  but  if  so  it  will  be  openly  to  him  and  not 
complainingly  to  her  pupils  or  fellow  teachers.  In  any  case 
she  will  carry  out  the  order  to  the  best  of  her  ability. 

Sjrmpathy.  Calm  and  intelligent  sympathy,  as  opposed 
to  mere  sentimentalism,  is  for  the  teacher,  more  perhaps 
than  for  the  soldier  or  business  man,  a  quaUty  of  personality 


232  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

which  is  indispensable.  The  teacher's  business  is  not  merely 
to  accumulate  information,  but  to  impart  it  to  others.  This 
means  that  she  must  enter  most  intimately  into  the  Hves 
of  others.  This  she  cannot  do  without  the  ability  to  put  her- 
self in  another's  place,  to  think  and  feel  as  her  various  chil- 
dren think  and  feel.  Nothing  demands  a  keener  insight  and 
imagination,  and  a  greater  amount  of  self-forgetfulness, 
than  the  claims  of  a  room  or  playground  full  of  children, 
some  of  whom  are  strong  and  some  weak,  some  happy  and 
some  sad,  some  from  good  homes  and  some  from  poor  ones, 
some  aggressive  and  some  bashful  and  afraid,  and  each  with 
his  own  little  likes  and  dislikes,  his  own  little  victories  and 
defeats.  To  be  able  and  ever  ready  to  put  one's  self  in  any 
one  of  these  thousand  possible  ix)sitions  is  to  possess  that 
invaluable  human  quality  we  call  sympathy,  which  is  a 
substantial  element  in  leadership. 

Tact.  The  man  who  has  a  ready  power  for  appreciating 
and  doing  or  saying  the  thing  which  circumstances  require 
has  a  peculiar  power  of  discernment,  a  discriminating  sense, 
a  mental  touch,  that  will  tide  him  over  many  difficulties 
in  life,  and  smooth  for  others  the  social  path  which  their 
own  imcouthness  has  ruffled.  Between  this  power  and  the 
power  to  deceive  there  is  a  wide  gulf.  Tact  is  not  hypocrisy, 
or  cant,  or  insincerity;  it  is  not  the  power  to  evade,  or  dis- 
tort, or  pretend;  it  is  not  craftiness,  or  cunning,  or  trickery. 
Tact  is  good  sense  and  keen  insight  and  quick  decision  at 
work  in  critical  places  making  needed  adjitstments.  It  is  diplo- 
macy in  a  wholesome  sense,  it  is  a  swift  application  of  the 
principles  of  mediation,  and  forces  others  to  speak  or  act 
with  discretion.  It  is  quick,  accurate,  and  skillful  self- 
direction.  It  is  clean  strategy. 

If  such  qualities  are  essential  in  business  and  politics  they 
are  more  than  important  in  teaching.  The  teacher  is  pri- 
marily an  adjuster.  She  stands  between  the  child  and  the 


THE  TEACHER'S  PERSONALITY  23S 

future  citizen,  between  the  home  and  the  State.  She  must 
meet  children,  parents,  school  trustees,  superintendents, 
principals,  and  educational  meddlers.  She  cannot  do  this 
if  she  is  not  quick  to  sense  discord,  and  skillful  in  applying 
the  needed  adjustment. 

Self-sacrifice.  Another  element  in  personality  that  is 
always  admired  is  a  willingness  to  serve  without  praise. 
Schiller  declared  that  ingratitude  is  the  world's  pay,  and 
that  is  very  often  true  in  the  kind  of  service  a  teacher  must 
render.  To  be  generous  without  praise  is  not  easy,  when  so 
many  men  seem  to  win  by  egotism  and  self-advertising.  We 
know  of  course  that  a  quack  wins  by  the  method  of  blatant 
self -advertising;  but  we  know,  too,  that  few  if  any  of  our 
really  great  men  have  won  their  ways  to  fame  by  such 
methods.  It  is  not  the  person  who  seeks  martyrdom  either 
that  we  have  in  mind.  Franklin  once  said  that  after  he  had 
tried  hard  to  overcome  his  pride  and  to  discipline  himself 
to  be  humble,  he  was  surprised  to  discover  that  he  was 
proud  of  his  humility.  It  is  in  such  ways  that  people  often 
deceive  themselves  and  only  feign  self-sacrifice.  This  is  the 
cheapest  sort  of  posing.  The  emphasis  must  be  upon  service. 
If  something  needs  to  be  done,  do  it,  not  to  be  seen,  but  in 
order  that  life  somewhere  may  be  better. 

However,  as  genuine  self-sacrifice  does  not  mean  humble- 
ness for  its  own  sake,  neither  does  it  mean  that  we  shall  go 
to  the  extreme  of  forgetting  self  entirely.  We  are  not  true 
to  society  in  a  large  sense  when  we  fail  to  treat  ourselves  as 
well  as  we  treat  others.  While  we  are  giving  freely  of  our 
time  and  energy  to  lift  others  to  a  higher  plane  of  living, 
we  must  not  forget  that  the  obligation  to  lift  ourselves  is 
quite  as  great.  It  is  sometimes  easier  to  let  a  child  go  home 
disappointed  and  discouraged  than  it  is  to  help  him  over 
his  little  mountain  of  trouble.  It  is  sometimes  easier  to 
^.llow  our  minds  to  go  wool-gathering  by  the  open  fireside, 


234  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

than  to  force  them  to  spend  the  evening  in  soKd  work. 
Society  wants  both  these  needs  to  be  met.  The  one  involves 
complete  self-forgetfulness,  the  other  forgetfulness  of  the 
narrower  self  only.  In  a  very  real  sense  they  are  equally 
unselfish  and  important. 

Optimism.  However  honest  and  self-sacrificing  a  man 
may  be,  if  he  is  not  optimistic,  if  he  does  not  thoroughly  be- 
Heve  in  humanity  and  in  himself,  if  he  has  no  enthusiasm, 
then  he  should  have  no  part  in  directing  the  training  of  chil- 
dren. Building  air-castles  may  seem  a  fruitless  enterprise, 
and  so  it  is  so  far  as  its  influence  on  the  landscape  is  con- 
cerned, but  to  the  builder  it  means  everything.  To  him  it  is 
essentially  a  process  of  self -development  and  self-realization. 
The  optimist  trusts  himself  and  trusts  others.  The  pessimist 
thinks  the  world  "has  it  in  for  him,"  and  doubts  the  good 
intentions,  even  of  his  friends.  The  optimist  fights  for  a 
better  city  government,  while  the  pessimist  sits  and  com- 
plains of  the  present  bad  one.  Everywhere  it  is  the  optimist 
who  proposes  a  plan  of  action,  to  which,  from  his  cave  of 
despair,  the  pessimist  expresses  a  dotibt  as  to  its  feasi- 
bility. 

The  schoolroom  is  no  place  for  the  man  or  woman  who  is 
forever  crossing  a  Slough  of  Despond.  It  is  no  place  for  the 
chronic  grouch  to  chant  his  tales  of  woe.  A  pessimist  is 
rarely  constructive.  He  is  never  ready  to  cooperate  cheer- 
fully, —  to  him  the  world  is  all  dark  brown.  In  the  school- 
room we  need  leaders,  men  and  women  who  are  looking  up, 
not  down,  who  are  glad  they  are  living,  who  have  a  sense 
of  humor,  and  can  smile  at  diflBculties.  We  need  men  and 
women  who  can  imderstand  and  apply  Stevenson's  recipe 
for  joyousness,  which  tells  us  "To  take  the  old  world  by  the 
hand  and  frolic  with  it."  Only  such  i>eople  are  wholesome 
companions  and  leaders  for  children. 


THE  TEACHER'S  PERSONALITY  9S5 

3.  Making  the  personality  effective 

Good  breeding.  The  above  elements  of  personality  may 
not  be  mutually  exclusive  at  every  point,  and  they  may 
not  be  fully  comprehensive  of  all  we  sometimes  mean  by 
the  term,  but  without  these  the  teacher  would  be  handi- 
capped in  a  fundamental  way.  On  the  other  hand,  a  teacher 
may  possess  them  all  in  good  degree  and  still  fall  short  of 
our  ideal  teacher  for  want  of  skill  in  their  use,  for  want  of 
those  simple  acquisitions  implied  in  the  terms  "good  breed- 
ing," "good  manners,"  "address,"  etc.  In  his  discussion  of 
the  education  of  a  gentleman,  Locke  states  the  importance 
of  these  in  forceful  language  when  he  says :  "  Breeding  is  that 
which  sets  a  gloss  upon  all  his  other  good  qualities,  and  ren- 
ders them  useful  to  him,  in  procuring  him  the  esteem  and 
good  will  of  all  that  he  comes  near";  and  again:  "Virtue 
and  parts,  though  they  are  allowed  their  due  commendation, 
yet  are  not  enough  to  procure  a  man  a  good  reception,  and 
make  him  welcome  wherever  he  comes."  ^ 

To  be  a  "plain  blunt  man"  does  not  mean  to  lack  refine- 
ment; nor,  on  the  other  hand,  does  elegance  of  manner, 
dress,  carriage,  and  conversation  imply  a  lack  of  force  and 
directness  in  character.  To  make  our  solid  virtues  count, 
to  get  results  with  all  the  good  there  is  in  us,  we  must  have 
an  open  sesame  to  our  social  world,  to  the  world  of  men  and 
women;  and  that  open  sesame  is  to  a  large  extent  knowledge 
of  social  standards  in  these  things,  and  skill  in  their  use. 

Personal  appearance.  The  teacher  who  does  not  appear 
well,  whose  clothes  are  not  in  good  taste,  whose  hair,  teeth, 
and  nails  are  not  well  cared  for,  the  man  who  does  not  shave 
daily,  is  at  a  very  great  disadvantage  in  applying  for  a  posi- 
tion, and  also  in  kefjping  one.^  These  are  evidences  of  gen- 

^  Locke,  John,  Some  Thoughts  Concerning  Education. 

2  By  an  investigation  of  the  "Characteristics  of  the  Best  Teachers 


236  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

tility,  or  the  want  of  it,  and  they  can  never  pass  unnoticed. 
Cleanliness  and  good  taste  in  dress  are  fairly  good  evidence 
of  clean  language  and  clean  morals,  and  always  mark  the 
genteel,  the  socialized  individual. 

Good  manners.  There  is  much  less  of  the  ceremonial  in 
the  manners  and  customs  of  to-day  than  there  was  in  the 
age  of  chivalry.  Democracy  in  government  has  brought 
with  it  even  greater  democracy  in  social  relationships,  but 
there  is  still  a  social  code  which  has  become  a  fixed  mode  of 
procedure  for  all,  and  to  ignore  it  is  to  be  labeled  as  ill- 
mannered.  For  a  lady  there  is  no  better  insurance  against 
insult  than  correct  manners,  nor  for  man  or  woman  is  there 
a  better  key  to  the  confidence  of  those  whom  they  would 
influence.  We  cannot  all  be  familiar  with  the  etiquette  of 
international  diplomacy,  but  we  can  and  must  know  how  to 
meet  people,  how  to  entertain,  and  be  entertained.  We  must 
know  the  etiquette  of  the  parlor,  the  dining-room,  the  the- 
ater, the  church,  and  the  street. 

Conversation.  To  be  able  to  converse  pleasantly  and  in- 
teUigently  is  almost  a  prerequisite  in  any  position  of  leader- 
ship, and  a  little  study  of  the  simple  principles  of  conversa- 
tion is  not  a  frivolous  occupation  for  a  teacher.  There  can 
be  no  pleasure  or  profit  either  in  a  conversation  which  does 
not  hinge  upon  a  common  interest,  and  to  be  able  to  dis- 
cover that  interest  is  the  very  beginning  of  skill  in  conversa- 
tion. The  teacher,  the  business  man,  the  insurance  man, 
and  the  socialist  are  four  people  who  will  do  well  to  remem- 
ber that  the  line  of  least  resistance  for  them  —  which  is 
inevitably  "talking  shop"  —  is  not  always  the  route  that 
leads  to  that  interest.    Again,  a  conversation  will  be  un- 

Recognized  by  Children,"  Kratz  found  that  in  every  grade  except  one  more 
than  fifty  i>er  cent  of  the  children  referred  to  the  dress  and  personal  appear- 
ance of  the  teacher  as  among  the  most  important  characteristics.  H.  E. 
Kratz,  Studies  and  Observations  in  the  Schoolroom  (Boston  Educational 
Publishing  Company,  1907),  chap.  v. 


THE  TEACHER'S  PERSONALITY  2S7 

pleasant  if  dominated  entirely  by  one  person.  Some  people 
try  always  to  lead  the  conversation.  Such  a  person  should 
frequently  practice  the  art  of  following  instead.  In  follow- 
ing one  can  contribute,  without  being  a  mere  namby-pamby. 
If  the  conversation  is  about  a  matter  of  business,  then 
directness  and  brevity  are  the  first  essentials.  Speech- 
making,  gossip,  and  cheap  wit  are  everywhere  evidence  of 
boorishness.  It  is  far  better  to  be  simple  and  frank,  and  to 
talk  about  only  such  things  as  we  know  about,  for  then  we 
rule  out  the  over-dramatic,  the  chatter,  and  the  small  talk, 
and  leave  plenty  of  room  for  real  brilliancy,  genuine  wit, 
and  true  social  intercourse. 

Correct  English.  Correct  English  is  essentially  a  part  of 
good  manners  and  good  conversation,  and  needs  to  be  men- 
tioned here  not  only  for  its  importance  in  these  respects, 
but  for  its  business  and  professional  value  as  well.  A  very 
large  percentage  of  written  applications  go  into  the  waste- 
basket  because  they  are  poorly  worded.  That  means  that 
the  world  regards  skill  in  written  expression  as  an  index  to 
character  and  training  in  general.  This  is  a  plain  but  sig- 
nificant fact  which  the  teacher  cannot  ignore.  Clear  and 
forceful  EngHsh,  either  written  or  spoken,  has  a  force  and 
a  charm  that  cannot  be  denied.  The  President's  reply  to 
the  peace  proposals  of  the  Pope  was  a  subject  of  comment 
the  world  over,  not  only  because  he  restated  clearly  the 
position  of  the  United  States  in  the  great  world  war,  or 
because  he  answered  an  important  communication  with 
plain  facts,  but  also  because  he  couched  his  answer  in  the 
choicest  of  English.  As  one  reads  that  letter  he  can  fairly 
feel  the  heart  throb  of  our  democracy,  so  clear  is  the  thought, 
so  forceful  and  direct  are  the  words,  so  delicate  and  refined 
is  the  phraseology.  The  teacher  has  constant  need  for  such 
an  instrument,  and  constant  opportunity  to  broaden  her 
power  to  serve  as  she  develops  skill  in  its  use.   Probably 


238  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

no  one  accomplishment,  after  good  manners,  counts  for  so 
much  with  a  teacher  as  the  abiUty  to  express  herself  in  clear 
and  forceful  EngHsh. 

A  good  voice.  The  teacher  is  so  constantly  engaged  in 
talking  that  it  seems  almost  trite  to  suggest  here  the  im- 
portance of  a  good  voice.  ^  And  it  would  be  if  it  were  not 
true  that  one  general  criticism  of  teachers  is  that  they  have 
disagreeable,  raspy  voices.  There  is  no  doubt  that  adults, 
as  weU  as  children,  are  distracted  and  annoyed  by  nervous, 
throaty  tones.  Nervous,  mental,  or  bodily  fatigue  is  Hkely 
to  show  first  of  all  in  one's  voice.  The  voice  will  be  pitched 
higher,  the  speech  will  become  louder,  and  the  articulation 
poorer,  until  finally,  in  extreme  cases,  the  speaker  will  seem 
to  have  lost  his  poise  entirely.  On  the  other  hand,  we  are 
all  familiar  with  the  soothing  effect  of  a  soft,  mellow  voice, 
under  good  control,  and  recognize  what  a  splendid  asset  it  is 
in  a  classroom. 

4.  Training  for 'personality 

The  great  question  is,  after  all,  how  am  I  to  go  about  it 
to  develop  my  personahty  so  that  I  will  possess  the  charm 
and  force  that  are  essential  to  leadership.  Can  I  will  to  be  a 
positive  as  opposed  to  a  negative  type  of  person?  Can  I  put 
aside  a  disposition  to  be  bashful  or  secretive,  and  learn  to 
be  frank  and  sincere.?  Can  I  learn  to  be  sympathetic,  tact- 
ful, and  self-sacrificing;  and  can  I  put  away  my  gloom  and 
doubt  and  become  an  enthusiastic  behever  in  life's  possibili- 
ties? And  if  I  can  acquire  these  excellent  qualities,  how  can 
I  make  them  tell  in  giving  me  a  place  of  power  and  influence 
in  the  worid's  work?  Can  I  become  interested  in  making 
my  personality  attractive?  How  shall  I  improve  my  appear- 

'  *  The  Speaking  Voice,  by  Katherine  Jewell  Everts  (Harper  &  Bros., 
1908),  will  afford  helpful  suggestions.  Also  A  Hand  Book  of  Oral  Reading, 
by  Lee  Emerson  Bassett  (Houghton  Mifflin  Company.  Boston,  1917). 


THE  TEACHER'S  PERSONALITY  239 

ance,  and  manners,  and  conversation,  and  use  of  English, 
and  how  can  I  develop  a  good  voice? 

Practice  decision.  Certainly  there  are  no  patent  recipes 
for  doing  any  of  these  things,  and  it  should  be  said  at  once 
that  we  cannot  make  something  out  of  nothing.  What  we 
have  by  inheritance  is  our  foundation  material,  back  of 
which  we  cannot  go,  and  in  this  material  we  are  not  all 
equals.  But  because  we  cannot  all  be  Newtons,  or  Shake- 
speares,  we  should  not  sit  and  mourn,  but  instead  we  should 
set  about  it  to  become  all  it  is  in  us  to  become.  Ours  is  the 
task  of  building  the  superstructure  and  not  the  foundation, 
and  we  can  never  find  the  possibilities  of  that  foimdation 
until  we  begin  to  take  its  measure  in  terms  of  life's  problems. 
Every  man  has  it  in  him  to  puU  against  the  cross-currents 
of  the  world,  and  if  he  neglects  or  refuses  to  pull,  then  he 
must  be  content  to  drift. 

Our  task,  then,  is  to  exercise  this  power  to  choose  our 
course.  Instead  of  waiting  like  a  Micawber  for  things  to 
turn  up,  we  must  go  about  turning  them  up  for  ourselves. 
We  must  learn  to  make  decisions,  and  to  follow  them  up 
with  action.  There  is  scarcely  a  moment  passes  in  which  we 
are  not  presented  with  the  possibility  of  making  a  choice  in 
something.  From  morning  until  night  there  is  a  constant 
flood  of  ideas  coming  to  our  minds,  in  response  to  the  thou- 
sand practical  situations  we  find  ourselves  in  from  hour  to 
hour.  The  negative  type  of  person  waits  for  these  ideas  to 
settle  themselves,  and  then  acts  in  terms  of  the  one  on  top. 
This  is  lazy  and  cowardly.  We  should  examine  critically 
every  idea  we  have  and  seek  for  others,  and  out  of  this  com- 
plex we  should  choose  the  one  which  is  to  guide  our  action, 
and  then  have  the  courage  to  stand  for  the  consequences. 

The  best  way  to  begin  is  to  seek  every  possible  oppor- 
tunity for  making  and  carrying  out  a  definite  decision. 
Shall  I  arise  now  and  prepare  for  the  day's  work,  or  shall 


240  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

I  sleep  awhile  longer?  Why  wait  for  a  decision  to  get  itself 
made?  Decide,  and  get  up!  Why  spend  a  week  trying  to 
make  up  one*s  mind  what  dress  to  wear  to  the  i>arty?  De- 
cide it,  and  then  clear  your  mind  for  other  things.  Don*t 
go  to  the  principal  to  find  out  what  to  do  about  a  simple 
case  of  discipline,  but  force  yourself  to  settle  it  alone. 
These  seem  like  trifling  details,  and  so  they  are  for  people 
with  executive  ability,  but  they  are  not  trifling  when  de 
ciding  them  consumes  a  large  percentage  of  a  teacher's 
time  and  energy.  It  is  by  being  positive,  by  deciding  things 
with  dispatch,  by  taking  a  definite  stand  in  respect  to  small 
things,  that  wc  may  hope  to  overcome  the  indecision,  weak- 
ness, and  inertia  of  a  negative  personaHty. 

Set  up  right  ideals.  It  is  a  good  practice  for  one  to  try 
occasionally  to  imagine  the  kind  of  person  he  would  Uke 
to  be,  and  the  sort  of  niche  he  would  Hke  to  fill  in  the  world. 
If  I  would  like  to  be  a  great  teacher,  then  just  what  does 
that  mean,  and  what  is  my  present  self  hke  when  measured 
in  such  terms?  Am  I  as  frank  and  sincere,  as  sympathetic, 
tactful,  unselfish,  and  optimistic,  as  I  would  like  to  be? 
Am  I  as  charming  in  my  dress,  manners,  and  conversa- 
tion as  I  make  this  hero  of  mine?  Such  self-examination 
forces  one  to  define  his  ambitions  and  aspirations  in  specific 
terms,  and  this  is  precisely  what  we  need.  So  often  our 
ideas  are  only  a  vague  longing  to  be  great,  or  good,  or  clever, 
and  we  forget  that  mere  dissatisfaction  with  our  present 
selves  —  for  that  is  about  all  such  longing  means  —  is  not 
enough.  It  is  not  enough  merely  to  be  on  the  way.  We  must 
know  where  we  are  going  if  our  steps  are  to  count. 

Develop  specific  habits.  Ideals,  however  well-defined,  will 
serve  as  httle  more  than  disturbers  of  the  peace  unless  we 
begin  to  take  stej>s  to  attain  them.  These  stej>s  are  to  be 
taken  in  the  form  of  specific  habits  of  conduct,  habits  of 
being  sincere,  sympathetic,  tactful;  habits  of  correct  dress, 


THE  TEACHER'S  PERSONALITY  241 

maimers,  and  conversation.  Only  a  few  illustrations  are 
necessary  to  suggest  where  and  how  to  begin,  and  the  first 
of  these  is  that  we  are  not  to  wait  and  look  for  something 
great  or  startling  to  begin  with.  To  develop  habits  of  sin- 
cerity we  need  to  do  two  things:  first,  quit  pretending  to 
be  what  we  are  not;  and  second,  practice  being  better  in 
what  we  are,  and  learn  to  give  good  measure  in  all  we  do. 

If  we  will  apply  these  general  principles  throughout  the 
day,  and  every  day,  soon  we  will  have  the  habit  of  greeting 
our  children  with  a  frank  good-morning,  and  we  will  apply 
ourselves  more  earnestly  in  the  preparation  of  our  lessons, 
and  we  will  learn  to  say  yes  when  we  mean  yes,  and  no 
when  we  mean  no.  We  will  cease  trying  to  "bluff,"  and 
say  frankly,  "I  do  not  know,  but  wiU  try  to  find  out  for 
you  "  (and  will  not  forget  the  promise),  and  will  be  zealous 
for  the  progress  of  every  child  imder  our  care. 

We  cannot  become  sympathetic  by  waiting  to  be  moved 
to  action  by  some  great  catastrophe.  We  must  take  note 
of  small  opportunities.  They  appear  on  the  playground 
and  in  the  classroom  every  day.  Bashful  little  Mary  has 
come  to  school  for  the  first  time,  and  feels  very  lonely  be- 
cause no  one  seems  to  know  her  or  to  care  to  have  her  join 
the  games.  She  needs  a  friend  to  drive  away  the  loneliness, 
and  to  help  her  to  fit  into  the  new  life.  James  is  behind  in 
his  work  and  is  discouraged.  Lend  him  a  hand  for  five  min- 
utes after  school,  and  send  him  home  feeling  that  now  he 
is  going  to  win  in  his  fight  to  keep  up  with  his  class.  Mrs. 
Brown  calls  to  scold  you  for  punishing  her  son.  Speak 
kindly  to  her  and  seek  her  cooperation. 

Observing,  learning,  growing.  Similarly  with  tact,  self- 
sacrifice,  and  optimism,  it  is  in  the  lesser  incidents  of  the 
daily  work  that  we  should  seek  opportunity  to  begin.  It 
is  not  necessary  to  constantly  antagonize  people.  Nagging 
at  the  children,  scolding,  getting  angry,  playing  the  spy. 


242  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

are  the  opposite  of  tactful  procedure.  Tact  in  teaching 
forbids  that  we  shall  always  tell  John  what  he  wants  to 
know,  and  insists  that  we  merely  put  him  in  a  position  to 
find  out  for  himself.  To  tell  him  is  the  teacher's  fatal  line 
of  least  resistance.  To  merely  point  the  way  often  involves 
effort  or  self-sacrifice.  Practice  it  and  practice  it  again 
must  be  oiu*  motto. 

"As  the  teacher  so  the  pupils"  is  nowhere  so  true  as  in 
the  matter  of  cheerfulness.  It  is  so  easy  to  doubt  when  one 
is  tired  from  a  hard  day's  work,  that  oftentimes  we  imcon- 
sciously  become  gloomy  and  not  too  agreeable  when  the 
children  seem  restless.  A  little  introspection  at  such  times 
will  often  show  that  the  teacher's  bright,  cheerful  ways, 
her  smile,  her  energy  and  enthusiasm  have  been  replaced 
by  a  general  attitude  of  pessimism.  Can  one  ever  over- 
come this.f^  Certainly  not  without  trying.  Trying  here 
does  not  mean  merely  resolving  to  put  away  the  gloom  if 
it  ever  comes  again,  it  means  resolution  plus  "turning  the 
trick"  the  first  chance  you  have,  and  then  again,  and 
again,  till  you  win. 

How  can  I  learn  correct  dress,  manners,  etc.?  Partly  by 
reading,  but  largely  by  keeping  my  eyes  open.  There  are 
dozens  of  magazines  that  deal  with  dress,  and  then  there  are 
people  to  look  at,  and  pages  of  advertising,  and  shop  win- 
dows. All  there  is  to  be  known  on  the  subject  is  easily  avail- 
able. How  do  the  people  of  my  type  and  caQing  dress? 
How  do  the  best  dressed  people  dress?  It  is  all  so  very  simple 
that  one  wonders  why  so  much  poor  taste  is  shown.  There 
are  books  on  manners  and  conversation,  and  correct  Eng- 
lish, aad  there  are  examples  of  all  of  them  everywhere  we 
go.  Read  the  best  novels,  essays,  and  biographies.  Such 
books  teem  with  suggestions  and  illustrations.  One  win- 
ter's study  of  these  questions  along  the  lines  here  suggested 
would  be  of  invaluable  service  to  teachers  and  indirectly 


THE  TEACHER'S  PERSONALITY  243 

to  the  schools.  How  often  the  girls  dress  their  hair,  or  pat- 
tern their  waists  after  the  fashion  set  by  the  teacher.  How 
often  do  they  copy  their  teacher's  mannerisms  and  their 
phrases,  and  in  the  fundamentals  as  well  as  in  these  lesser 
attributes  of  personality,  how  often  does  the  teacher  set 
the  standard  for  her  whole  community.  We  must  cease 
to  regard  our  education  as  complete  when  it  has  dealt  with 
books  alone.  What  have  these  books  done  to  make  us  dif- 
ferent men  and  women  personally,  is  the  vital  question. 
These  differences  must  exist  not  only  in  the  form  of  ideals 
and  aspirations,  but  also  in  the  form  of  specific  habits  of 
conduct.  If  we  are  really  different,  then  our  behavior  will 
be  different.  Education  for  us  must  indeed  be  organized 
self -direction. 

5.  Chapter  summary 

In  summarizing,  let  us  keep  in  mind  the  large  importance  of 
personality  as  a  part  of  the  teacher's  equipment.  To  be  positive 
rather  than  negative;  to  be  frank  and  sincere;  to  be  sympathetic, 
tactful,  and  self-sacrificing;  and  with  all  to  be  a  thorough  believer 
in  the  possibilities  of  life;  these  are  the  demands  of  the  schoolroom, 
and  they  are  the  demands  of  real  achievement  everywhere. 

As  we  have  seen,  these  qualities  express  themselves  in  good 
breeding;  in  our  personal  appearance;  in  our  manners  and  conver- 
sation; in  the  quality  of  our  English;  and  in  the  character  and  con- 
trol of  our  voices.  We  must  remember,  too,  that  these  things  are 
not  all  inherited.  The  responsibility  for  their  attainment  is  our 
very  own.  Training  and  self-discipline  in  the  practice  of  decision; 
in  the  development  of  right  ideals  and  specific  habits;  in  the  powers 
of  observation  and  imitation;  these  are  the  specific  points  of  at- 
tack for  the  teacher  who  would  enlarge  her  own  personal  power 
and  charm,  and  through  these  her  professional  effectiveness. 

REFERENCES  FOR  ADDITIONAL  READING 

Bagley,  W.  C,  Craftsmanshi'p  in  Teaching,  chap.  i. 
Eliot,  C.  W.,  "The  New  Definition  of  the  Cultivated  Man,"  in  his  Educa- 
tion for  Efficiency. 
Hyde,  W.  DeWitt,  The  Teacher's  Philosopkv. 


244  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

McKenny,  Chas.,  The  Personality  of  the  Teacher. 
Palmer,  G.  H.,  The  Ideal  Teacher. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Define  "personality"  as  you  understand  the  term. 

2.  Try  to  analyze  and  evaluate  the  personality  of  some  one  whom  you 
admire  as  a  man  or  woman  of  high  character.  Try  the  same  plan  on 
yoiu*self ,  and  on  one  of  your  former  teachers. 

3.  Under  the  headings  used  in  this  chapter  for  analyzing  character,  try 
to  set  down  the  qualities  you  would  regard  as  necessary  for  an  ideal 
teacher.  Set  over  against  each  of  these  a  quality  or  trait  of  the  op- 
posite sort.  Where,  in  respect  to  these  two  extremes,  do  you  place 
yourself  as  a  teacher.'' 

4.  Classify  a  dozen  of  your  friends  as  positive  or  negative.  Try  the  same 
plan  on  your  pupils  and  yom-self . 

5.  Mention  some  decisions  you  have  made  in  the  past  in  school  work  that 
put  your  frankness  and  sincerity  to  the  test. 

6.  In  what  ways  have  you  shown  sympathy  in  your  school  work? 

7.  Think  of  the  most  tactful  person  you  know.  Is  he  a  leader  in  his  work 
and  in  his  community?  In  what  kinds  of  situations  have  you  seen  him 
show  tact?  Think  of  the  most  untactf  ul  person  you  know  and  apply  these 
same  inquiries.  In  what  ways  do  you  need  to  use  tact  in  your  work? 

8.  Who  is  the  greatest  optimist  you  know?  Has  he  many  friends?  Do 
many  seem  to  dislike  him?  Think  of  the  greatest  pessimist  you  know 
and  apply  these  same  questions.  Which  one  seems  to  get  most  out  of 
life?  Which  one  seems  to  contribute  most  to  society?  Is  there  danger 
of  being  too  optimistic;  if  so,  what  is  the  antidote  for  it? 

0.  Do  you  think  Locke  overstates  the  importance  of  good  breeding? 
Think  of  the  best-mannered  person,  the  best-dressed,  the  best  con- 
versationalist, the  one  who  uses  the  best  English,  and  the  one  who 
has  the  best  voice.  How  many  people  did  you  have  to  name?  Is  any 
one  whom  you  named  specially  short  in  respect  to  one  or  more  of  the 
other  points? 

10.  Can  you  recall  the  name  of  any  former  teacher  of  yours  who  was  espe- 
cially long  or  especially  short  in  any  one  of  these  respects?  Can  you 
analyze  the  significance  that  quality  had  in  adding  to  or  detracting 
from  that  teadier's  worth  in  the  classroom  and  in  the  community? 

11.  In  what  ways  have  you  tried  to  perfect  yoiu-  own  appearance,  man^ 
ners,  etc.?  Suggest  methods  for  further  growth. 

12.  What  specific  habits  can  you  mention  that  you  have  consciously 
developed  as  a  result  of  your  desire  to  make  a  better  appearance,  to 
have  better  manners,  to  converse  more  easily  and  pleasantly,  to  per- 
fect your  written  and  spoken  English,  and  to  increase  the  eflFective- 
ness  of  your  voice  ?  What  habits  along  these  lines  are  you  now  trying 
to  perfect? 


CHAPTER  XVII 

THE  TEACHER'S  TRAINING  AND  GROWTH 

Outline  of  Chapter 

1.  Increased  demand  for  better  training  —  A  decade  of  progress — New  attitude  and 
demands  —  Academic  training  demanded  —  Professional  training  demanded  —  Ejctent  of 
training  required  —  Trdning  and  merit  in  teaching  —  Why  teachers  lose  their  places  — 
Teacher  score  cards. 

2.  The  teacher's  growth  —  Necessity  for  growth  —  Opportunities  for  growth  —  The 
teacher's  reading — Professional  meetings,  visiting,  etc.  —  Progress  the  only  basis  of  sureness. 

3.  Summary  —  References  —  Questions. 

Something  like  a  definite  plan  for  the  training  of  teachers 
was  first  instituted  in  the  United  States  about  three  quar- 
ters of  a  century  ago.  Since  that  time,  through  each  suc- 
ceeding decade,  the  problem  of  teacher  training  has  gradu- 
ally become  more  clearly  defined,  and  has  received  increased 
attention  and  support  from  the  State  and  from  leading  edu- 
cational thinkers.  Gradually  the  pubHc  has  come  to  realize 
that  teaching  is  a  dijQScult  and  a  technical  piece  of  work, 
requiring  special  preparation,  and  the  old  notion  that 
"teachers  are  born,  not  made,"  has  gradually  disappeared. 
As  this  change  has  come  about,  the  power  to  examine  and 
certificate  teachers  for  the  schools  has  been  taken  out  of 
the  hands  of  local  school  trustees  and  placed  in  the  hands 
of  State  and  county  school  oflScials,  while  the  issuance  of 
certificates  has  been  increasingly  guarded  by  State  legisla- 
tion. 

1.  Increased  demand  for  better  training 

A  decade  of  progress.  To-day  the  demand  for  carefully 
trained  teachers  is  felt  on  every  side.  One  needs  only  to 
set  down  a  few  facts  and  figures  showing  the  extent  to  which 
facilities  for  training  teachers  already  exist,  and  the  tend- 


246  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

ency  toward  better  certification  and  minimum  wage  laws, 
to  be  convinced  that  the  time  is  rapidly  approaching  when 
the  education  of  teachers  will  be  as  carefully  and  fully 
specified  as  it  now  is  for  the  nurse,  physician,  or  engineer. 
Let  us  consider  a  few  facts.  ^  There  were  in  the  United 
States,  at  date  of  last  report,  232  state  normal  schools,  314 
imiversities  and  colleges  with  teacher-training  departments, 
and  1481  high  schools  offering  teacher-training  courses. 
During  the  past  decade  State  legislatm-es  have  increased 
their  annual  grants  for  the  support  of  pubhc  normal  schools 
by  nearly  forty  per  cent,  and  the  amount  spent  annually 
for  buildings  is  rapidly  increasing.  In  the  273  normal  schools 
there  were,  in  1915,  nearly  5000  teachers  employed  in 
training  over  100,000  students.  This  is  an  increase  over  a 
decade  ago  of  more  than  60  per  cent,  in  teachers,  and  65 
per  cent,  in  students. 

We  are  not  merely  increasing  training  faciUties,  how- 
ever, but  corresponding  to  these  rapidly-increasing  faciU- 
ties for  training  teachers  there  has  come  an  increase  in  the 
legal  requirements  for  certification  to  teach.  In  about  one 
third  of  the  State  legislatures  which  were  in  session  in  1915, 
laws  relating  to  the  qualification  of  teachers  were  enacted, 
and  everywhere  the  tendency  was  to  replace  the  old  exami- 
nation system  with  certain  definite  academic  and  profes- 
sional requirements  as  to  previous  training.  Each  year, 
too,  these  requirements  are  being  more  exactly  stated  in 
terms  of  the  number  of  units  of  academic  and  professional 
work  to  be  done  in  the  normal  school  or  the  college.  ^ 

An  indication,  similar  to  this,  is  seen  in  the  emphasis 
placed  ui>on  training  by  our  recently-enacted  minimum- 

^  For  the  following  facts  see  the  Reports  of  the  U.S.  Commissioner  oj 
Education  for  1905  and  1915. 

'  See  Updegraff,  H.,  Recognition  given  College  Graduates  in  the  Granting 
of  Teachers'  Certificates.  School  Review  Monograph,  no.  vi  (University  of 
Chicago  Press,  1915). 


THE  TEACHER'S  TRAINING  AND  GROWTH    247 

wage  laws.  The  Indiana  law  of  1907  illustrates  the  point 
clearly.  This  law  determines  the  minimum  daily  wage  for 
beginning  teachers  **  by  multiplying  two  and  one  half  cents 
by  the  general  average  given  such  teacher  in  his  highest 
grade  of  Hcense  at  the  time  of  contracting."  For  teachers 
of  one  year  of  successful  experience,  three  cents;  and  for 
teachers  of  three  or  more  years  of  experience,  three  and  one 
half  cents  are  used  as  the  multiplicand.  The  law  then  states 
that  "  a  teacher  without  experience  shall  be  a  graduate  of 
a  high  school  or  its  equivalent,  and  shall  have  had  not  less 
than  one  term  of  twelve  weeks'  work  in  a  school  maintain- 
ing a  professional  course  for  the  training  of  teachers."  A 
teacher  with  one  school  year's  experience  must  have  had 
two  terms  in  the  professional  school,  and  "a  teacher  with 
three  or  more  years'  successful  experience"  must  be  a 
graduate  of  such  a  professional  school. 

New  attitudes  and  demands.  Almost  equally  forceful 
evidence  of  this  increasing  demand  for  better  training  is 
seen  in  the  results  of  some  of  our  recent  educational  in- 
vestigations. Several  studies  have  been  made  of  the  prac- 
tical bases  now  in  use  for  the  selection  of  teachers.  One 
such  inquiry,  covering  the  prevailing  opinions  and  prac- 
tices of  four  hundred  and  twenty  superintendents  of  schools, 
and  one  hundred  and  eighty-three  presidents  of  school 
boards  in  the  United  States,  shows  that  of  fifteen  factors 
or  qualities  considered  in  the  selection  of  teachers  the 
greatest  importance  is  attached  to  '*  scholarship  and  edu- 
cation."^ "Disciphne  (governing  skill)"  is  given  second 
place,  "teaching  skill  or  method"  holds  third  place,  and 
"strength  of  personality"  fourth  place  on  their  list  of  fif- 
teen factors. 

Thus,  if  we  look  at  what  is  going  on  before  our  eyes :  the 

^  Anderson,  W.  N.,  "The  Selection  of  Teachers";  in  Educational  Admin- 
istration and  Supervision,  vol.  iii,  p.  83  (February,  1917). 


^48  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

almost  unheard  of  expansion  of  our  schools  for  the  profes- 
sional training  of  teachers,  the  increased  legal  insistance 
upon  training  as  a  prerequisite  for  certification,  the  rela- 
tion of  training  to  the  estabhshment  of  a  minimum  wage 
for  teachers,  and  the  extent  to  which  superintendents  and 
school  boards  are  basing  their  appointment  of  teachers 
upon  training,  we  must  realize  that  it  is  a  nation-wide 
movement.  Surely  no  prospective  teacher  or  school  ad- 
ministrator can  face  these  plain  evidences  of  the  trend  of 
things  in  education  and  hope  to  make  an  educational  career 
for  himself  or  herself  without  a  careful  and  extensive  prepn 
aration  in  school. 

Academic  training  demanded.  There  are  two  sides  to  the 
education  of  a  modem  teacher,  —  the  academic  and  the 
professional.  The  teacher  must  first  of  aU  know  something 
to  teach,  and  secondly  she  must  know  how  to  teach  it.  The 
first  in  general  consists  of  a  broad  cultural  outlook  upon 
life,  an  outlook  at  once  intellectual,  aesthetic,  moral,  and 
broadly  social.  While  for  the  most  part  good  books  and 
great  teachers  will  be  the  chief  sources  from  which  such 
training  will  be  derived,  yet  there  will  continue  to  be  in- 
creasing value  placed  upon  travel  and  contact  with  people 
from  all  walks  of  life,  as  the  most  important  means  of 
supplementing  the  more  systematic  training  which  will  be 
received  in  the  schools. 

Such  an  outlook  upon  life  cannot  be  gotten  by  the  stu- 
dent who  stresses  textbook  knowledge  alone,  and  seeks  to 
cram  the  memory  with  isolated  facts.  The  teacher,  above 
all  people,  must  feel  the  force  of  the  larger  currents  in  civili- 
zation, past  and  present,  and  be  able  to  see  how  these  are 
to  be  influenced  by  the  knowledge  and  the  skills  she  wishes 
to  impart  to  her  pupils.  Mere  names  and  dates  in  history; 
mere  pohtical  forms  and  formulae;  mere  ndes  in  grammar, 
arithmetic,  and  speUing,  are  not  enough.    These  are  all 


THE  TEACHER'S  TRAINING  AND  GROWTH     249 

essential,  but  only  as  the  bare  skeleton  of  her  real  training 
which  looks  to  the  larger  and  deeper  significance  of  such  facts 
as  they  enter  into  the  meaning  of  the  world  in  which  we  live. 
Professional  training  demanded.  Such  a  body  of  knowl- 
edge and  experience  is  the  only  sound  basis  for  the  second 
part  of  a  teacher's  education,  which  is  to  be  professional. 
Such  training  consists  in  being  able  to  view  this  founda- 
tion knowledge  and  experience,  or  such  parts  of  it  as  appear 
in  the  course  of  study  to  be  taught,  in  their  relations  to  the 
child  and  to  the  social  and  physical  world  in  which  the  child 
lives.  The  demand  is  that  we  shall  teach  children  rather 
than  books,  and  in  order  to  do  this  we  must  know  some- 
thing about  the  processes  by  means  of  which  knowledge, 
skills,  appreciation,  and  ideals  are  gained  by  the  child,  and 
how  they  are  imparted  by  the  teacher.  But  the  professional 
duties  of  the  teacher,  and  particularly  of  the  principal  and 
superintendent,  are  broader  than  is  implied  by  the  term 
teaching  alone.  There  are  the  problems  of  organization  and 
management,  the  problems  of  orienting  the  school  with  re- 
spect to  the  life  of  the  community,  the  problem  of  select- 
ing and  organizing  the  coiu*se  of  study,  etc.  These  call  for 
an  understanding  of  the  school  as  an  institution.  What 
the  school  has  attempted,  and  should  now  be  attempting 
to  do  for  civilization;  what  are  the  principles  upon  which 
such  an  institution  and  courses  of  study  may  properly 
be  organized;  and  how  these  may  be  managed  to  the  end 
that  health  and  physical  development  may  be  cared  for, 
and  real  education  of  the  children  result,  are  fundamental 
questions. 

First  of  all  we  should  expect  our  teacher  to  possess  a 
general  knowledge  of  the  history  of  education,  through 
which  she  would  come  to  see  the  school  as  one  of  the  sev- 
eral great  social  enterprises  of  past  and  present  civiliza- 
tions.   Secondly,  we  should  expect  her  to  know  something 


250  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

of  the  fundamentals  of  educational  psychology,  and  of 
the  principles  of  teaching,  in  order  that  she  might  exercise 
economy  in  her  management  of  the  processes  of  instruc- 
tion. Third,  she  should  have  some  knowledge  of  school 
organization  and  management,  as  these  pertain  to  the  real 
technique  of  directing  the  work  of  the  school.  Fourth,  we 
should  insist  further  upon  some  knowledge  of  school  hy- 
giene and  health  conservation,  in  order  that  the  physical 
conditions  under  which  our  children  work  may  be  condu- 
cive to  the  attainment  of  other  aims  of  the  school.  Fifth, 
these  four  fields  of  knowledge  must  then  be  carefully  coor- 
dinated in  some  actual  practice,  under  wise  direction,  in 
order  that  to  her  knowledge  she  may  add  skiU  in  execution. 
Extent  of  training  required.  It  is  not  so  difficult  to  state 
what  should  ideally  be  the  extent  of  this  training,  and  cer- 
tainly every  teacher  should  strive  to  reach  such  an  ideal, 
even  though  we  know  that  the  economic  laws  of  supply 
and  demand  can  be  violated  here  very  httle  more  than 
they  can  be  in  business.  For  a  practical  working  basis  it 
is  safe,  however,  to  suggest  that  every  teacher  who  is 
worthy  of  a  position  should  not  be  content  to  remain  below 
the  average  in  preparation.  This  average  cannot  be  stated 
with  absolute  accuracy,  but  a  number  of  rather  extensive 
investigations^  furnish  us  with  a  fairly  safe  index.  Sum- 
marized in  a  few  words  these  studies  practically  agree  in 
setting  the  average  mark  at  approximately  four  years  of 
high-school  training  for  elementary  teachers,  and  at  least 
the  equivalent  of  full  high-school  and  college  training  for 
all  teachers  in  secondary  schools. 

1  Those  interested  in  these  facts  should  consult  especially:  Thomdike, 
E.  L.,  The  Teaching  Staff  of  Secondary  Schools  in  the  United  States.  U.  S. 
Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin  no.  404  (1909);  Coffman,  L.  D.,  The  Social 
Composition  of  the  Teaching  Popidation,  Teachers  College  Contributions, 
no.  41  (1911);  and  Bobbitt,  J.  F.,  The  Public  Schools  of  Sovih  Bend,  Indi- 
ana. (Chicago,  1914.) 


THE  TEACHER'S  TRAINING  AND  GROWTH     251 

If  this  is  approximately  the  average  of  what  is  now  being 
accomplished,  then  no  teacher  should  be  satisfied  until  this 
point  is  reached,  and  even  exceeded,  for,  ideally,  it  is  too  low. 
For  elementary  teachers  the  amount  of  general  or  academic 
training  should  certainly  be  the  equivalent  of  a  full  four 
years*  course  in  a  good  high  school,  and  in  addition  to  this 
at  least  two  years  are  needed  to  cover,  even  in  a  small  way, 
the  five  general  lines  of  professional  training  suggested 
above.  For  the  high-school  teacher  the  academic  training 
should  be  increased  to  include  the  equivalent  of  a  four  years' 
course  in  college,  and  the  professional  training  should  in- 
clude substantial  university  courses  in  each  of  the  fields 
here  suggested.  That  we  are  actually  approaching  these 
standards  in  practice  is  evidenced  by  recent  changes  in  our 
certification  laws,  and  it  is  clear  that  the  time  is  approach- 
ing when  those  who  are  below  this  standard  wiU  be  ehmi- 
nated  from  the  profession. 

Training  and  merit  in  teaching.  Does  training  count,  and 
if  so  how,  and  to  what  extent.?  The  facts  about  individual 
differences,  which  we  have  discussed  above,  ^  remind  us  that 
no  two  students  are  alike,  and  consequently  our  common 
observation  that  teachers  of  equal  training  are  not  equally 
efficient  does  not  surprise  us.  Yet  we  know  in  general  that 
training  counts,  and  we  are  concerned  here  with  just  why  a 
teacher  should  spend  her  time  and  energy  in  educating 
herself  to  teach. 

The  brief  answer  we  can  give  here  must  be  based  on  two 
sets  of  facts  which  are  rapidly  accumulating,  and  rapidly 
making  themselves  felt  in  school  practice.  One  of  these  sets 
of  facts  has  been  gathered  by  investigations  into  the  prac- 
tical relationship  between  training  and  teaching  abihty,  and 
the  other  in  connection  with  the  formulation  of  devices  for 
teacher  measurement. 

^  See  chapter  ni,  section  6. 


252  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

One  of  the  investigations  above  dted  shows  that  city 
teachers  are  better  trained  than  are  rural  and  village  teach- 
ers. We  know  also  that  city  teachers  are  better  paid,  and 
that,  generally  speaking,  it  is  because  they  can  render  better 
service.  This  does  not  prove  conclusively  that  the  extra 
training  is  the  cause  of  the  greater  efficiency,  but  such  a 
relationship  is  strongly  suggested.  Another  study,  including 
the  teachers  in  all  the  principal  high  schools  of  Indiana, 
states,  on  the  basis  of  carefully  analyzed  data,  that  "the 
best  prepared  teachers  are  the  ones  who  receive  the  highest 
salaries."^ 

Why  teachers  lose  their  places.  The  number  of  teachers 
dismissed  by  one  himdred  and  sixteen  city  superintendents  in 
the  United  States  were  collected,  along  with  a  careful  analy- 
sis of  the  reasons  for  dismissal,  in  a  recent  investigation,  and 
among  the  causes  of  failures  we  find  "deficiency  in  scholar- 
ship" marked  as  the  chief  cause  of  forty-two  of  the  two 
hundred  and  seventy  failures,  and  as  contributory  cause  of 
forty  more.  Other  causes,  such  as  "poor  methods,"  "un- 
professional attitudes,"  "uninterested  in  work  of  teaching," 
and  "daily  preparation  insufficient,"  all  of  which  pertain  to 
training,  stand  as  the  chief  cause  of  sixty-five  more  failures.  ^ 

Still  another  study  of  scholarship  and  teaching  efficiency, 
based  upon  the  marks  received  in  teachers'  examinations 
and  university  and  normal-school  courses,  on  the  one  hand, 
and  city  superintendents'  estimates  of  teaching  efficiency 
on  the  other,  points  conclusively  to  the  fact  that  there  is 
a  positive  relationship  between  scholarship  and  teaching 
efficiency.' 

1  Shideler,  S.  E.,  "Qualifications,  Salary,  and  Tenure  of  the  Teachers  in 
the  Commissioned  High  Schools  of  Indiana";  in  School  Retnew,  vol.  xxi, 
p.  446  (September,  1913). 

2  Buellesfield,  Henry,  "Causes  of  Failures  among  Teachers  ";  in  Educa- 
tional Administration  and  Supervision,  vol.  i,  p.  439  (September,  1915). 

»  Clapp,  F.  L.,  Scholarship  in  Relation  to  Teaching,  in  School  Review 
Monograph,  no.  vi  (University  of  Chicago  Press,  1916). 


THE  TEACHER'S  TRAINING  AND  GROWTH     253 

These  are  typical  of  many  more  inquiries  into  the  influ- 
ence which  training  has  upon  actual  teaching  eflSciency.  It 
may  be  true  that  personal  opinion  has  entered  largely  into 
these  studies,  but  the  answer  to  any  such  criticism  is  that 
the  facts  which  they  hive  made  use  of  are  just  the  facts 
which  are  actually  counting  in  the  appointment,  promotion, 
and  dismissal  of  teachers,  and  are  therefore  of  very  great 
practical  value. 

Teacher  Score  Cards.  The  second  set  of  facts  furnishes  a 
basis  for  very  similar  conclusions.  There  have  been  a  num- 
ber of  practical  devices  made  for  measuring  teaching  suc- 
cess, and  in  every  one,  training,  and  progressive  scholarship, 
as  well  as  personahty,  occupy  a  prominent  place.  In  the 
earliest  one  of  these  scales,^  such  items  as  "preparation," 
meaning  both  academic  and  professional  training,  "pro- 
fessional attitudes  and  interest,"  "continuing  preparation,** 
and  "increase  of  professional  equipment"  indicate  the 
emphasis  placed  on  training.  Another  similar  device  makes 
a  complete  efficiency  record  under  the  five  headings:  per- 
sonal equipment,  social  and  professional  equipment,  school 
management,  technique  of  teaching,  and  results.  ^  A  copy 
of  this  score  card  is  given  on  the  opposite  page,  showing  the 
scoring  of  one  teacher  by  three  judges.  Still  another  some- 
what more  complex  device  gives  ten,  out  of  its  total  of  forty- 
six  points,  to  the  various  aspects  of  preparation  and  growth.* 

It  must  be  remembered  that  these  devices  have  been  made 
by  careful  students  of  teaching  efficiency,  and  that  their  aim 
has  been  to  develop  a  thoroughly  practical  scheme  by  means 

1  Elliott,  E.  C,  Provisional  Plan  for  the  Measure  of  Merit  of  Teachers. 
(Wisconsin  State  Department  of  Education,  1912.) 

2  Boyce,  A.  C,  A  Method  for  Guiding  and  Controlling  the  Judging  of 
Teaching  Efficiency.  School  Review  Monograph,  no.  vi.  (University  of 
Chicago  Press,  1915.) 

3  Witham,  Ernest  C,  "School  and  Teacher  Measurement";  Journal 
of  Educational  Psychology,  vol.  v,  p.  267  (May,  1914). 


254 


CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 


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Fig.  6.  A  Tbacheb  Efficibncy  Score  Card 

(Beprinted  from  Boyce'a  article,  by  courtesy  of  the  University  of  Chicago  Picss.) 

Efficiency  of  a  teacher  recorded  by  three  different  judges. 

Superintendent  D;  Principal  X;  Supervisor  O. 


THE  TEACHER'S  TRAINING  AND  GROWTH    ^55 

of  which  teachers  may  estimate  their  own  ability  in  the 
classroom,  as  well  as  have  it  estimated  for  them  by  super- 
vising ofl5cers. 

All  the  facts  we  have  been  presenting  here  are  hard  and 
practical  facts,  that  argue  much  more  forcefully  than  any 
mere  words  of  advice  can  do,  and  they  must  not  be  ignored 
by  anyone  who  expects  to  enter,  or  to  remain  long  in  school 
work.  The  time  when  meager  and  indiflferent  preparation 
will  suflSce  is  past,  and  every  progressive  teacher  should  wel- 
come and  help  to  sustain  the  tendency  toward  higher  re- 
quirements for  certification  and  retention  in  place. 

S.   The  tedcher^s  growth 

Necessity  for  growth.  It  is  not  enough  merely  to  begin 
with  a  good  education.  The  constantly  changing  condi- 
tions and  functions  of  the  school  make  it  imperative  that 
teachers  shall  continue  to  grow^  in  their  work.  New  school 
aims  must  be  constantly  formulating  to  meet  new  social, 
industrial,  and  poHtical  needs;  new  pedagogical  principles 
must  be  evolved;  new  devices  in  teaching  and  management 
must  be  worked  out;  and  greater  skill  in  executing  in  these 
new  terms  must  be  attained.  The  teacher  has  a  part  in  this 
changing  program.  She  is  not  expected  to  develop  much  new 
theory,  but  she  must  develop  her  practice  in  terms  of  new 
theory,  and  she  must  increase  her  own  personal  power  and 
charm.  To  do  this  she  must  be  constantly  on  the  alert,  con- 
stantly in  training,  and  constantly  progressing.  In  the  call- 
ing of  teaching  there  is  no  such  thing  as  standing  still.  To 
cease  to  be  a  student  when  one  takes  up  the  work  of  teaching 
is  to  act  on  the  very  false  assmnption  that  the  training  of 
to-day  wiU  suflBce  for  the  issues  of  to-morrow. 

*  A  most  interesting  account  of  the  numerous  opportunities  for  self- 
development  which  are  open  to  teachers  is  presented  in  United  States 
Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin  no.  3  (1911),  by  Wm.  Carl  Ruediger,  en- 
titled Agencies  for  the  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service. 


256  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

Opportunities  for  growth.  The  teacher's  opportunities 
for  growth  are  almost  unlimited  in  number  and  variety,  and 
are  so  easily  available  that  even  the  teacher  in  the  most  iso- 
lated rural  school  has  no  excuse  for  failing  to  keep  abreast 
with  her  position.  There  is,  first,  the  social  life  of  the  com- 
munity itself,  really  to  participate  in  which  is  always  a 
Kberal  training  for  the  young  teacher.  There  are  the  public, 
or  perhaps  traveling  hbraries,  with  all  kinds  of  good  books. 
There  are  magazines  and  papers  at  a  small  cost.  There  are 
possible  extension  courses,  public  lectiu-es,  musicals,  and 
theaters.  There  are  teachers'  meetings,  institutes,  associa- 
tions, summer  schools,  reading-circle  work,  visiting  schools, 
trips  to  parks  and  museums,  and  travel,  most  of  which  are 
available  in  some  degree  to  all,  and  to  a  large  degree  for 
most  teachers. 

Too  many  teachers  act  on  the  assumption  that  they  are 
being  paid  for  the  work  they  do  in  the  schoolroom  alone. 
This  is  a  wrong  notion.  The  school  is  an  institution  of  and 
for  all  the  people,  and  must  function  with  old  as  well  as  with 
young.  ^  Leadership  in  directing  the  community  interests, 
as  they  naturally  center  in  the  school,  is  in  part  what  the 
teacher  is  being  paid  for,  and  such  service  cannot  be  ren- 
dered by  standing  aloof  from  the  people  and  their  social 
activities.  Still  more,  even  if  such  a  traditional  conception 
were  acceptable  to  the  people,  it  is  too  narrow  a  life  for  any 
teacher  to  Hve.  Because  one  becomes  a  teacher  she  should 
not  therefore  neglect  to  be  a  citizen.  To  be  a  member  of  a 
commimity  is  to  maintain  normal  social  relationships,  with- 
out which  one  not  only  ceases  to  grow,  but  tends  to  become 
narrow,  cynical,  and  personally  unattractive. 

The  teacher's  reading.  Teachers,  as  a  rule,  do  not  read 
enough,  and  the  reading  they  do  is  too  often  not  well  bal- 
anced. Let  us  sketch  out  a  possible  year's  reading  to  illus- 
^  See  chapter  iv,  section  ii. 


THE  TEACHER'S  TRAINING  AND  GROWTH     257 

trate  what  is  meant.  ^  First  of  all,  there  must  be  some  bal- 
ance between  the  reading  one  does  for  general  culture  and 
that  which  is  done  for  professional  development.  Again  in 
the  general  reading  there  should  be  some  balance  between 
that  which  deals  with  current  issues  and  that  covering 
matter  of  a  more  permanent  type;  and  so  on  with  other 
groups  which  the  following  schemes  may  clearly  illustrate.^ 

Suggested  Materials  for  One  Year's  Reading 
A.  General  Reading 

I.  Current  literature  — 

1.  A  daily  newspaper. 

2.  One  weekly  magazine. 

a.  The  Independent. 
^.  The  Literary  Digest. 

c.  The  New  Republic. 

d.  The  Outlook. 

3.  One  monthly  magazine. 

a.  Everybody's. 

h.  Harper's  Magazine. 

c.  The  Review  of  Reviews, 

d.  The  World's  Work. 
II.  Books  (four). 

1.  Fiction. 
a.  Old. 

(1)  Scott. 

(2)  Thackeray. 

(3)  Victor  Hugo. 

^  For  a  very  helpful  list  of  books,  address  the  U.S.  Commissioner  of 
Education,  Washington,  D.C. 

2  It  must  be  understood  that  this  list  is  merely  suggestive  of  some  of 
the  most  suitable  and  easily  available  materials  which  any  teacher  wUl 
find  helpful  in  her  own  plan  of  self-education.  It  is  in  no  way  exhaustive 
at  any  point,  the  aim  being  merely  to  present  a  sample  program  from 
which  any  teacher  may  be  able  to  make  selections.  It  is  believed  to  be 
suitable  in  character  and  amount  for  any  teacher  who  is  willing  to  do  a 
reasonable  amount  of  systematic  work  each  year.  Such  a  program,  consist- 
ently pursued  for  a  term  of  years,  would  in  itself  give  a  liberal  education. 


258  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

6.  Recent. 

(1)  Chekhov. 

(2)  WeUs. 

(3)  Edith  Wharton. 
2.  Biography. 

a.  Of  some  writer. 

b.  Of  some  statesman. 

c.  Of  some  scientist. 
S.  Travel. 

a.  PoweU,  The  End  of  the  Trail. 

h.  Ruhl,  The  Other  Americans. 

c.  Vrooman,  The  Lure  and  Love  of  Travel. 

4.  Science. 

a.  Kean,   Wm.   W.,   Medical  Research  and  Huma? 
Welfare. 

b.  Libby,  History  of  Science. 

c.  Maeterlinck,  Life  of  the  Bee. 

d.  Torrey,  Field  Days  in  California. 

5.  History. 

a.  Foster,  A  Century  of  American  Diplonuicy, 

b.  Muzzy,  American  History. 

c.  Usher,  Pan-Germanism. 

B.  Professional  Reading^ 

I.  Current  literature  (two)  magazines  covering  — 

1.  Educational  news. 

a.  Local  State  journal. 

b.  Journal  of  Education,  Boston. 

2.  Discussion  of  practical  problems. 

a.  American  Primary  Teacher. 

b.  Popular  Educator. 

c.  Primary  Education. 

3.  Scientific  discussions. 

a.  Elementary  School  Journal. 

b.  Journal  of  Educational  Psychology. 
II.  Books  of  a  general  character  (one). 

1.  Cubberley,  Rural  Life  and  Education. 

2.  Dewey,  Schools  of  To-morrow. 

*  See  Selected  Bibliography  at  dose  of  the  book  for  better  descriptions  of 
these  books. 


THE  TEACHER'S  TRAINING  AND  GROWTH     259 

S.  Emerson,  Evolution  of  the  Educational  Ideal. 

4.  Gillett,  Constructive  Rural  Sociology. 

5.  Patri,  A  Schoolmaster  of  the  Great  City. 
in.  Books  on  methods  and  management  (one). 

1.  Bennett,  School  Efficiency. 

2.  Hall-Quest,  Supervised  Study. 

3.  Kendall  and  Mirick,  How  to  Teach  the  Fundamental  Sub- 
jects. 

4.  Stray er  and  Norsworthy,  How  to  Teach. 

5.  Woofter,  Teaching  in  Rural  Schools. 

IV.  Books  on  physical  and  mdustrial  education  (one). 

1.  Ayres,  Williams,  and  Wood,  Healthful  Schoob. 

2.  Bloomfield,  The  Vocational  Guidance  of  Youth. 

3.  Curtis,  Play  and  Recreation. 

4.  Snedden,  The  Problem  of  Vocational  Education. 

5.  Terman,  The  Hygiene  of  the  School  Child. 
V.  Scientific  books  (one). 

1.  Cook  and  O'Shea,  The  Child  and  His  Spelling. 

2.  Cubberley,  Report  of  the  Portland  School  Survey. 

3.  Freeman,  The  Psychology  of  the  Common  Branches. 

4.  Judd,  Psychology  of  High  School  Subjects. 

5.  Monroe,  DeVoss,  and   Kelly,  Educational    Tests    and 
Measurements. 

6.  Terman,  Measurement  of  Intelligence. 

The  teacher's  first  impression  may  be  that  this  represents 
a  large  midertaking.  Aside  from  current  literatm-e,  it  calls 
for  the  reading  of  four  books  for  general  culture,  and  four 
for  professional  development.  This  is  approximately  one 
book  each  month  through  the  school  year,  leaving  the  vaca- 
tion period  free  for  attendance  at  a  summer  school,  further 
light  reading,  recreation,  and  travel.  It  is  about  the  mini- 
mum amount  of  reading  necessary  for  the  all-roimd  develop- 
ment which  we  have  a  right  to  expect  of  all  pubhc  servants. 
It  does  not  suggest  as  much  current  fiction  as  many  people 
read,  but  it  shows  about  the  proper  ratio  which  fiction 
should  hold  to  other  lines  of  reading,  and  if  this  pro- 
portion is  adhered  to  there  would  be  far  less  reading  which 


260  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

amounts  to  dissipation,  and  far  more  that  tonishes  food  for 
thought. 

Professional  meetings,  visiting,  etc.  If  the  teachers  of  a 
county  were  to  organize  a  reading  circle  on  this  basis,  and 
meet  at  intervals  for  reports  and  discussion,  the  results 
would  be  invaluable.  Such  a  plan  could  also  be  carried  out 
in  teachers'  meetings  with  excellent  effect.  Such  reading  cir- 
cles, when  properly  carried  out,  are  among  the  most  potent 
forces  for  the  personal  and  professional  development  of 
teachers  that  have  yet  been  devised.  Their  value  lies  in  the 
fact  that  it  extends  throughout  the  year,  furnishes  definite 
intellectual  activity  when  alone,  provides  a  basis  for  real 
discussion  at  meetings,  and  affords  the  participants  a  sense 
of  membership  in  a  stable  organization  and  calling. 

The  teachers'  institute  is  another  organization  that  offers 
excellent  opportunities  for  solid  growth.  The  tendency 
here,  as  in  other  professional  organizations,  is  for  lecturers 
to  present  concrete  problems  and  to  show  what  is  to  be 
done  about  them  by  the  teachers.  It  remains  for  the  teacher 
to  go  back  to  her  work  and  put  what  she  has  heard  to  the 
test.  This  she  is  at  Hberty  to  do  or  not,  and  many,  for  lack 
of  energy,  do  not,  and  as  a  consequence  tend  to  lose  interest 
and  cease  to  grow. 

There  is  probably  no  better  way  to  get  concrete  sugges- 
tions for  one's  work  than  by  visiting  other  teachers.  Many 
city  superintendents,  seeing  the  value  of  this,  have  made 
visiting  a  definite  part  of  every  teacher's  work. 

Progress  the  only  basis  of  sureness.  The  teacher,  as  well 
as  the  business  man,  must  learn  to  turn  things  to  account. 
She  must  keep  up  her  stock  of  culture  as  the  merchant 
keeps  up  his  stock  of  goods,  and,  like  the  merchant,  must 
not  overlook  the  staple  lines  because  there  appears  to  be 
large  profit  in  temporary  and  trivial  wares.  The  teacher 
who  reads  only  sentimental  stories,  and  attends  only  cheap 


THE  TEACHER'S  TRAINING  AND  GROWTH     261 

vaudeville  programs,  is  neglecting  the  staples  which  are 
found  in  the  best  class  of  non-fiction  as  well  as  fiction,  at 
the  opera,  the  high-class  theater,  and  the  lecture  hall.  Fail- 
ure is  as  certain  for  the  lopsided  teacher  as  it  is  for  the  lop- 
sided business.  Progress  along  sound  lines  is  the  only  basis 
of  success.  Look  at  the  failures  around  you.  They  are  peo- 
ple who  were  not  growing.  The  unprogressive  teacher  is 
usually  jealous,  pessimistic,  and  in  general  unhappy,  while 
the  progressive  teacher  is  alert,  happy,  and  personally  at- 
tractive. The  one  talks  about  what  she  is,  the  other  about 
what  she  is  going  to  become.  The  one  emphasizes  her  rights, 
the  other  her  privileges  and  obligations.  The  one  works  for 
salary,  the  other  to  serve,  and  the  one  fails  while  the  other 
succeeds. 

3.  Chapter  summary 

In  this  chapter  we  have  pointed  out  the  increasing  demand  for 
better  trained  teachers,  and  the  consequent  prospect  of  failure  for 
those  who  enter  the  profession  with  inadequate  training,  or  who 
fail  to  keep  pace  with  the  growing  needs  of  the  school.  We  have 
seen  that  this  training  must  consist  in  both  academic  and  pro- 
fessional study,  not  of  books  alone,  but  with  the  view  of  getting  a 
sound  comprehension  of  and  a  broad  perspective  for  the  knowledge 
the  teacher  is  to  impart,  and  skill  in  imparting  it. 

In  order  to  make  clear  that  this  is  to  be  a  continuous  process  for 
the  teacher,  an  outline  of  a  year's  program  of  study  has  been  sug- 
gested. This  plan  calls  for  a  reasonable  balance  between  light  and 
heavy  reading;  it  suggests  the  breadth  of  contact  which  the 
teacher  must  keep  with  affairs  and  with  her  profession;  and  offers 
specific  directions  for  carrying  out  such  a  plan  of  self -development; 
—  a  plan  which  every  teacher  should  demand  of  herself  if  she  is 
not  able  to  enter  upon  it  with  real  pleasure  and  enthusiasm. 

FOR  ADDITIONAL  READING 

Colgrove,  C.  P.,  The  Teacher  and  the  School,  chaps,  i,  n. 
Cubberley,  E.  P.,  Rural  Life  and  Edwation,  chap.  xii. 
Hyde,  Wm.  DeWitt,  The  Teacher's  Philosophy,  pt.  ii. 


262  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 


QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Collect  the  facts  for  your  own  State  which  tend  to  show  that  the 
problem  of  trainmg  teachers  is  holding  a  more  prominent  place  in 
the  educational  policy  of  the  State  now  than  it  held  a  decade  ago. 

2.  How  do  you  distinguish  between  academic  and  professional  training? 

3.  What  are  the  reasons  why  a  more  extensive  professional  training  is 
necessary  to-day  than  was  necessary  in  colonial  times? 

4.  From  the  facts  cited,  what  seems  to  be  the  practical  bearing  of  train- 
ing on  school  practice?  Does  this  correspond  to  your  own  observa- 
tions? 

5.  Have  you  attempted  to  evaluate  your  own  teaching  or  that  of  another 
teacher  in  terms  of  one  of  the  scales  or  score  cards  suggested?  What 
is  the  advantage  of  such  plans  for  use  by  the  teacher  herself,  by  the 
principal,  or  by  the  supervisor? 

6.  If  you  could  take  your  education  over  again,  in  what  ways,  if  any, 
would  you  change  it,  and  why?  Why  is  the  training  of  twenty  years 
ago  inadequate  for  a  teacher  of  to-day? 

7.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  continue  to  be  a  student  after  entering  teach- 
ing? Classify  your  former  teachers,  and  your  present  acquaintances 
among  teachers,  with  respect  to  then*  efforts  to  grow  in  their  work. 

8.  Try  to  estimate  the  amount  of  time  you  think  it  would  be  necessary 
to  devote  daily  to  reading  in  order  to  complete  the  reading  program 
suggested  above  in  eight  months.  Would  it  be  a  reasonable  under- 
taking? Where  would  you  shorten  or  supplement  it? 

9.  Without  using  any  of  the  books  or  magazines  above  mentioned,  make 
out  a  sunilar  program  that  you  would  like  to  carry  out. 

10.  Make  out  a  list  of  books  and  articles  which  you  would  recommend 
to  a  teacher  of  a  beginning  class,  another  for  a  teacher  of  the  upper 
grades,  another  for  a  teacher  of  a  rural  school,  another  for  a  teacher 
of  reading,  and  others  for  teachers  of  spelling,  arithmetic,  language, 
nature  study,  civics,  and  history. 

11.  Should  advancement  in  salary  be  based  in  part  on  the  teacher's  effort 
at  self-development?  If  so,  how  could  a  superintendent  determine  the 
worth  of  such  effort? 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

THE  TEACHER'S  HEALTH  AND  RECREATION 

OuTUNB  OF  Chapter 

1.  Teaching  a  strenuotis  occupation  —  Age  distribution  of  teachers. 

2.  Status  of  the  teacher's  health  —  Mortality  rates  —  Nervous  diseases. 

5.  Causes  ol  such  conditions  —  Responsibility  for  the  problem  —  Teachers  work  in  bad 
light  —  Heating  and  ventilation  —  Other  factors. 

4.  Correction  of  these  evils  —  Some  simple  hygienic  standards  —  What  the  teacher  can 
do. 

6.  The  teacher's  recreation  —  Intelligent  living  —  Systematic  living — Kinds  of  exercise 
and  recreation  needed  —  The  teacher's  vacation. 

6.  Summary  —  References  —  Questions. 

1.  Teaching  a  strenuous  occupation 

Whatever  the  teacher's  personality  may  be,  however 
fitly  she  may  be  equipped  for  her  work,  there  is  yet  the 
question  of  how  effectively  her  personality  and  training 
are  going  to  function.  Teaching  is  everywhere  recognized 
as  a  strenuous  occupation.  The  teacher  must  be  forever 
on  the  alert,  exercising  patience,  discretion,  and  decision, 
under  conditions  which  are  often  most  trying.  None  but 
the  most  rugged  in  physique  are  competent  to  exercise  wise 
and  sympathetic  leadership  under  such  circumstances 
without  taking  serious  thought  for  their  own  physical  and 
mental  well-being. 

Age  distribution  of  teachers.  The  tendency  among  city 
superintendents  is  to  insist  upon  a  health  certificate,  based 
upon  a  thorough  physical  examination,  as  a  part  of  every 
application  for  a  teaching  position,  and  to  refuse  to  consider 
the  employment  of  all  candidates  who  have  passed  the  age 
of  forty-five  years.  Teaching  is  in  the  main  an  occupation 
for  strong,  young  people,  and  more  and  more  it  is  being 
insisted  that  these  shall  be  selected  on  the  basis  of  physical 
as  well  as  intellectual  fitness.  Coffman  describes  the  "  typi- 


264  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

cal  American  male  public  school  teacher  "  as  being  twenty- 
nine  years  old,  and  the  "  typical  American  female  teacher  " 
as  twenty-four  years  old,  ^  and  of  the  more  than  five  thou- 
sand teachers  dealt  with  in  his  study,  but  twenty-nine  had 
reached  their  sixtieth  birthday.  In  the  city  of  Cleveland, 
with  more  than  four  thousand  teachers,  twenty-eight  were 
in  this  class,  and  only  twenty  had  taught  more  than  thirty- 
five  years.  2  The  State  pension  systems  now  in  force  in  this 
coimtry  permit  teachers  to  retire  at  ages  ranging  from  fifty 
to  sixty-five  years,  after  from  twenty  to  thirty-five  years* 
service. 3  Such  facts  tend  to  show  that  teaching  makes  a 
heavy  demand  upon  physical  energy,  and  should  remind 
the  beginning  teacher  of  the  importance  of  keeping  herself 
physically  up  to  standard. 

2.  Status  of  the  teacher's  health 

Mortality  rates.  It  is  not  enough,  however,  merely  to 
remind  ourselves  that  teaching  is  hard  work.  We  must  go 
further  and  find  out  what  specific  effects  such  work  has 
upon  the  health  of  those  who  enter  it.  Is  there  such  a  thing 
as  occupational  disease  among  teachers.^  What  is  the  ex- 
pected mortahty  among  teachers  as  compared  with  other 
groups  of  people,  and  what  is  the  character  and  extent  of 
morbidity.?  These  are  questions  which  cannot  be  fully 
answered  for  want  of  adequate  vital  statistics.  A  few  facts 
are  known,  however,  and  their  analysis  and  interpretation 
by  students  of  school  hygiene  hold  some  surprises  for  those 
who  think  that  teachers  are  an  unusually  healthy  group, 

1  Coffman,  L.  D.,  The  Social  Composition  of  the  Teaching  Population. 
Teachers  College  Contributions,  no.  41  (1911). 

2  Jessup,  W.  A.,  The  Teaching  Staff.  (Cleveland  Education  Survey, 
1916.) 

'  State  Pension  Systems  for  Public-School  Teachers.  U.S.  Bureau  of 
Education,  Bulletin  no.  14  (1916). 


HEALTH  AND  RECREATION  265 

and  that  teaching  is,  from  this  point  of  view,  an  easy  occu- 
pation. ^ 

It  does  not  appear  that  the  mortah'ty  rate  among  teach- 
ers is  in  general  any  higher  than  for  other  similar  groups,^ 
but  that  teachers  are  specially  subject  to  certain  chest, 
throat,  gastric,  and  nervous  complaints  seems  fairly  well 
established.^  Most  prominent  among  these  diseases  are 
tuberculosis,  influenza,  and  conditions  of  neurasthenia. 
In  his  chapter  on  "Tuberculosis  and  the  Teacher,"  Dr. 
Terman  generalizes  upon  carefully  analyzed  data  for  the 
United  States,  as  follows:  (1)  There  is  a  "  higher  mortality 
for  teachers,  both  male  and  female,  than  for  persons  of  the 
corresponding  sex  in  other  occupations.  This  excess  is  never 
less  than  nineteen  per  cent,  and  rises  as  high  as  twenty-six 
per  cent.  (2)  There  is  a  higher  mortality  for  female  teachers 
than  for  male  teachers,  the  difference  between  the  two 
being  forty-three  per  cent  for  white  teachers,  and  thirty- 
nine  per  cent  for  teachers  of  all  races." 

Nervous  diseases.  Equally  disturbing  figures  relating  to 
nervous  diseases  could  be  cited,  as  when  Todd  states  that 
of  the  eighty-seven  out  of  three  hundred  and  twenty-seven 
cases  receiving  breakdown  allowances  in  London,  fifty  were 
due  to  neurasthenia,  fourteen  to  nervous  prostration,  six 
to  nervous  debUity,  five  to  melancholia,  five  to  lunacy,  and 
seven  to  delusions.  On  the  basis  of  many  such  facts,  Todd 
says:  "Briefly  reviewing  the  results,  neurasthenia  and  a 
long  train  of  other  nervous  diseases  seem  to  stand  out  as 

1  Terman,  L.  M.,  The  Teacher's  Health.  Offers  the  most  satisfactory  con- 
cise treatment  of  this  subject  for  teachers. 

2  Small,  W.  S.,  "The  Health  of  Teachers";  in  Proceedings,  American 
School  Hygiene  Association  (1909). 

'  Todd,  Walter,  "Some  Prevalent  Diseases  Incidental  to  the  Profession 
of  Teaching  in  Elementary  Schools";  in  Proceedings,  Second  International 
Congress  on  School  Hygiene  (London,  1907,  1908).  See  also  Terman  and 
SmaU,  above  cited. 


^66  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

those  which  teachers  have  most  to  fear  throughout  the  whole 
course  of  their  service." 

These  are  but  samples  of  data  that  are  now  rapidly  ac- 
cmnulating  and  which  constantly  point  to  the  same  con- 
clusion, namely,  that  while  the  strain  of  teaching  does  not 
seem  to  affect  longevity  in  its  general  total,  it  does  lower 
it  in  respect  to  certain  diseases;  and  that  morbidity  among 
teachers  along  these  lines  is  relatively  high. 

3.  Causes  of  such  conditions 

Responsibility  for  the  problem.  The  question  of  impor- 
tance is,  what  are  the  causes  of  these  difficulties,  and  are 
they  remediable.  Certainly  the  teacher  who  is  tired  and 
nervous  is  not  one  hundred  per  cent  efficient.  She  is  likely 
to  be  discouraged,  to  show  a  lack  of  self-confidence  and  a 
lack  of  initiative,  and  in  the  long  run  to  become  a  burden 
to  herself  and  to  the  children  she  means  to  serve.  If  the 
teaching  corps  is  selected  from  the  physically  unfit,  as  is 
not  infrequently  claimed,  then  laws  should  enforce  restric- 
tions which  will  prevent  weakHngs  from  entering  such  work. 
The  proper  time  for  such  restrictions  is  when  the  students 
are  entering  the  normal  and  other  teacher  training  schools, 
and  when  they  become  candidates  for  positions,  and  not 
after  they  have  rendered  several  years  of  poor  service  and 
worn  themselves  out. 

If  the  causes  are  to  be  foimd  in  the  unhygienic  conditions 
of  work  in  the  classroom,  or  in  an  improper  distribution  of 
the  burdens  of  instruction,  then  we  must  look  to  boards  of 
education  and  to  administrative  and  supervisory  officers 
for  the  remedy.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  due  to  the  igno- 
rance or  indifference  of  teachers  themselves,  then  it  is  the 
teacher's  own  problem.  The  fact  seems  to  be  that  all  these 
causes  are  operating. 

Teachers  work  in  bad  light.  Perhaps  there  is  no  one  con- 


HEALTH  AND  RECREATION  867 

dition  common  to  a  large  percentage  of  our  classrooms  that 
is  more  often  the  cause  of  fidgety  children  and  nervous 
headaches  among  teachers  than  that  of  bad  light.  Of  the 
six  hundred  and  sixty  classrooms  examined  in  the  Salt  Lake 
City  Survey,  only  ninety-six  were  found  to  be  properly 
lighted.^  The  Portlaiid,^  Butte,  ^  and  Cleveland*  Surveys, 
without  using  figures,  speak  in  the  same  general  vein,  while 
the  Springfield  ^  Survey  says,  "  Of  every  ten  classrooms  in 
the  city,  seven  have  windows  at  the  left  and  rear,  one  has 
them  at  the  right  and  rear,  while  only  two  have  them  at 
the  left  only,"  where  they  properly  belong.  As  to  the 
amount  of  light,  these  scientific  surveys  speak  in  equally 
condemning  words.  In  Salt  Lake  City,  seventy-seven  teach- 
ers stated  that  ill  effects  had  been  experienced,  and  fifteen 
of  these  stated  that  their  health  had  been  seriously  injured 
in  this  way. 

Heating  and  ventilation.  From  these  same  reports  we 
learn  that  in  Salt  Lake  City  there  were  between  thirty  and 
forty  teachers  who  were  at  work  in  rooms  with  the  suffo- 
cating temperature  of  74°  to  80°  Fahrenheit.  In  Springfield 
the  temperature,  found  by  tests  in  one  hundred  and  seventy 
rooms,  showed  a  range  of  from  58°  to  86°,  there  being 
twenty-eight  rooms  with  a  temperature  of  74°  or  higher, 
and  in  no  room  tested  was  the  humidity  above  forty-six 
per  cent,  though  the  proper  humidity  is  about  fifty  per  cent. 
In  all  these  investigations  it  was  found  that  ventilation  is 
as  yet  an  unsolved  problem. 

^  Cubberley,  E.  P.,  School  Organization  and  Administration.  (World 
Book  Company,  1916.) 

2  Portland,  Oregon,  Report  of  a  Survey  of  the  Public  School  System. 
(1913.   Reprinted  by  World  Book  Company,  Yonkers,  New  York.) 

^  Butte,  Montana,  Report  of  a  Survey  of  the  School  System  of  Butte.  (1914.) 

4  Cleveland  Education  Survey.  (The  Survey  Committee  of  the  Cleveland 
Foundation,  Cleveland,  Ohio,  1916.) 

^  Survey  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Springfield,  Illinois.  (Russell  Sage 
Foundation,  New  York,  1914.) 


268  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

Other  factors.  Aside  from  these  there  are  other  factors, 
such  as  chalk  dust  and  innumerable  floating  particles  of 
lint,  cast-off  cuticle,  and  filth-laden  bits  from  throat  and 
nasal  discharges;  there  are  soiled  books  and  papers  to  be 
handled,  and  in  too  many  cases  the  most  miserable  provi- 
sions for  drinking-water  and  for  toilet  facihties.  In  a  recent 
study  of  rural  school  sanitation  in  Porter  County,  Indiana, 
it  is  stated  that  the  water  used  in  seventy-five  per  cent  of 
tue  schools  was  obtained  from  shallow  driven  wells,  that 
protection  from  surface  drainage  was  not  satisfactory,  and 
that  sanitary  drinking  fountains  were  in  use  in  but  four  of 
the  seventy-five  buildings  examined.^  The  Salt  Lake  City 
Survey  reports  that  no  school  was  without  the  common 
roller  towel,  and  numerous  glaring  instances  of  really  dan- 
gerous conditions  could  be  cited. 

We  also  hear  the  frequent  complaint  that  there  are  too 
many  children  to  the  room.  The  Springfield  Survey  reports 
the  attendance  in  forty-two  out  of  one  hundred  and  forty- 
seven  rooms  to  have  ranged  from  forty  to  fifty-three  pupils, 
and  every  one  knows  that  this  is  fairly  typical  for  other 
cities.  The  cold  lunch,  the  frequent  burden  of  night  study, 
the  long  hours  of  service  in  the  day  without  real  relaxation, 
the  inefluicient  janitor  service,  are  other  items  which  add  to 
the  dangers  and  strain  of  teaching. 

4^.  Correction  of  these  evils 

There  are  two  ways  in  which  the  teacher  may  undertake 
to  correct  these  evils.  First,  she  can  five  a  normal  life  out- 
side the  school,  and  so  increase  her  resistance  to  disease; 
and  secondly,  she  can,  in  some  measure,  overcome  the 
difficulties  within  the  school.    The  former  she  will  accom- 

1  Rural  School  Sanitation,  Including  Physical  and  Mental  Status  of  School 
Children  in  Porter  County,  Indiana.  (Treasury  Department,  U.S.  Public 
Health  Service,  Bulletin  no.  77,  June,  1916.) 


HEALTH  AND  RECREATION  269 

plish  by  proper  exercise,  food,  and  sleep;  and  the  latter  by 
first  learning  the  standards  to  be  attained  in  light,  tempera- 
ture, ventilation,  etc.,  and  then  utilizing  everything  avail- 
able for  bringing  her  room  up  to  these  standards. 

Some  simple  hygienic  standards.  Teachers  should  be- 
come familiar  with  every  sort  of  standard  that  has  been 
developed  for  the  management  of  school  work.  Here  are 
a  few  that  bear  upon  the  points  under  discussion:  — 

1.  Temperature.  The  proper  temperature  for  a  schoolroom  is 
about  68°  Fahrenheit. 

2.  Light.  The  light  on  every  desk  should  be  at  least  nine  foot 
candle-power.  Or,  the  window  glass  space  should  equal 
twenty  to  twenty-five  per  cent  of  the  floor  space  in  the  room. 

3.  Humidity.  The  proper  humidity  is  about  fifty  per  cent  (one 
hundred  per  cent  is  the  point  at  which  precipitation  begins). 

4.  Air  Space.  The  amount  of  pure  air  per  person  in  the  room 
should  be  not  less  than  2000  cubic  feet  per  hour. 

5.  Contagicms  diseases.  Any  child  who  is  considered  in  the  least 
dangerous  to  others  from  the  standpoint  of  contagious  or  in- 
fectious disease  should  be  sent  home  promptly.^ 

6.  Other  general  rules  to  be  followed  are :  light  from  left  side  only, 
and  no  glaring  sunlight  on  desks;  no  roller  towels  or  common 
drinking  cup;  air  in  room  should  be  kept  in  motion;  windows 
and  floor  should  be  washed  frequently,  and  chalk  trays  and 
erasers  should  be  cleaned  daily. 

What  the  teacher  can  do.  These  are  very  simple  rules  to 
learn,  and  most  of  them  can  be  followed  in  some  measure 
at  least.  If  the  teacher  cannot  control  the  temperature  of 
her  room  directly,  then  she  should  present  the  facts  in  the 
case  to  her  principal,  superintendent,  or  school  board,  and 
urge  that  it  have  prompt  attention.  In  the  matter  of  fight, 
most  teachers  need  to  be  reminded  that  window  shades  are 
made  to  use.    Without  an  instrument  only  serious  errors 

*  Every  teacher  should  be  famUiar  with  such  books  as  The  Hygiene  of  the 
School  Child,  by  Dr.  L.  M.  Tennan;  The  Health  Index  of  Children,  by  Dr. 
E.  B.  Hoag;  and  The  Health  of  the  School  Child,  by  W.  Leslie  Mackenzie. 


a70  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

in  humidity  are  likely  to  be  detected,  but  the  right  amount 
of  breathing-space  is  easily  figured  and  should  be  insisted 
upon.  The  roller  towel,  and  other  germ-carrying  devices 
will  Hkewise  disappear  from  the  schoolroom  much  soonei 
if  the  teacher  will  insist  upon  her  right  to  protect  her  owii 
health  and  the  health  of  her  pupils. 

As  to  dangers  from  infected  children,  books,  papers,  etc., 
the  teacher  must  learn  such  discretion  as  is  commonly  ex- 
ercised by  aU  practicing  nurses.  Some  sHght  knowledge  of 
how  to  detect  symptoms  of  infectious  diseases,  and  prompt 
handhng  of  suspected  cases,  will  cover  most  of  the  dangers 
from  such  sources,  while  a  simple  plan  for  disinfecting  books 
is  easily  operated. 

5.   The  teacher's  recreation 

Intelligent  living.  As  a  matter  of  self-protection,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  wisdom  of  living  a  joyous  life,  the  teacher 
must  look  to  the  problem  of  keeping  an  adequate  margin 
of  good  health.  This  is  largely  the  problem  of  proper  rest 
and  recreation.  It  is  such  a  simple  truth  to  say  that  when 
one  is  tired  and  half  sick  most  any  sort  of  work  becomes 
barren  drudgery,  and  yet  this  explanation  is  rarely  thought 
of  by  the  teacher  who  retires  in  disgust  after  a  long  evening 
spent  in  the  useless  task  of  correcting  papers. 

If  at  frequent  intervals  every  teacher  would  figure  up  the 
approximate  amount  of  her  time  that  has  gone  into  work 
directly  and  indirectly  connected  with  her  profession;  into 
reading  and  study  for  general  information  and  culture;  into 
real  recreation;  and  into  eating  and  sleeping;  she  would  be 
able  to  say  whether  or  not  she  is  maintaining  a  proper 
balance  among  these  important  interests.  Upon  this  bal- 
ance depends  her  margin  of  security  in  health,  the  extent 
of  her  eflSciency  in  service,  and  the  fullness  of  her  cup  of 
joy  in  life. 


HEALTH  AND  RECREATION  271 

Systematic  living.  What  is  needed  by  teachers  is  the  ap- 
plication of  a  bit  of  system  and  common  sense  in  their  daily 
lives.  Teaching  cannot  be  sedulously  followed  by  young 
people  without  studiously  oflFsetting  its  inactivity  with 
outside  exercise  and  pleasure.  Every  teacher  should  set 
aside  a  definite  time  for  exercise,  and  a  definite  sum  of 
money  for  recreation  and  pleasure.  A  regular  time  for  a 
walk,  a  tennis  game,  a  horseback  ride;  and  a  regular  monthly 
allowance  for  theater,  opera,  travel,  or  for  the  entertaining 
of  one's  friends,  will  take  one  out  into  the  open  air  where 
acquaintance  with  nature  may  be  renewed,  furnish  a  host 
of  new  thrills,  and  establish  new  interests  and  new  com- 
panionships, which  will  drive  away  care,  renew  one's  mental 
and  physical  vigor,  and  provide  a  saner  perspective  for 
the  serious  tasks  of  the  days  to  come. 

Kinds  of  exercise  and  recreation  needed.  In  the  main 
the  teacher  should  take  her  exercise  out  of  doors,  and  as 
often  as  possible  the  element  of  play  should  enter  strongly. 
It  is  not  only  a  matter  of  exercising  muscles,  lungs,  and 
cu*cu  ^tory  system,  but  of  driving  away  the  fatigue  of  mind 
as  well.  Few  bright,  new  ideas  are  Hkely  to  flash  into  the 
mind  Wj  ile  one  is  pulling  weights  or  swinging  dumb-bells  in 
his  room  or  in  a  gymnasium.  Really  to  rest,  one  must  have 
mental  i  well  as  physical  diversion,  and  this  does  not  come 
except  ir.  the  presence  of  new  and  interesting  mental  prob- 
lems. Fishing,  hunting,  ball,  tennis,  riding,  swimming, 
skating,  c  Dasting,  boating,  and  walking,  are  sports  for  people 
of  the  quie.t  life,  for  such  activities  re-create  the  mind  as  well 
as  the  body\ 

To  a  goodly  amount  of  such  activities,  taken  frequently 
and  regularly ,\  the  teacher  should  add  a  certain  amount  of 
light  reading,  and  frequent  attendance  at  theater  or  light 
opera,  all  for  l|the  sake  of  pure  enjoyment  and  relaxation. 
A  hearty  laugli  is  of  inestimable  value.    About  the  most 


272  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

pathetic-looking  person  the  writer  ever  saw  was  a  man  who 
had  taken  no  vacation  and  little  or  no  recreation  for  tei 
years.  In  the  midst  of  the  most  sparkling  wit,  at  a  mountain 
resort,  where  he  had  reluctantly  gone  for  rest,  he  sat  with  a 
drawn  face  and  a  far-off  look  as  if  he  could  not  understand 
why  people  were  laughing.  One  rarely  faces  an  audience 
of  teachers  that  does  not  contain  such  faces  as  this.  Teachers 
need  to  laugh,  they  need  to  see  new  faces,  to  hear  new  voices, 
to  converse  with  new  people  about  new  and  different  things, 
for  then  they  can  go  back  to  serious  work  with  a  clearer 
sense  of  values,  which  is  exactly  what  rest  and  recreation 
mean. 

The  teacher's  vacation.  How  shall  I  spend  my  two  to 
four  months'  vacation.'*  is  an  annual  question  for  every 
teacher.  Certainly  a  part  of  it  must  be  used  for  recreation, 
and  the  remainder  for  a  different  kind  of  work.  How  it  will 
be  divided  wiU  depend  upon  how  wisely  or  fooHshly  the  year 
has  been  spent,  but  for  nine  teachers  out  of  every  ten  the 
following  prescription  would  be  a  good  beginning:  First, 
procure  a  copy  of  some  such  book  as  Woods  Hutchiison  2»\ 
Exercise  and  EfeaUh,  or  Fisher  and  Fisk's  How  to  live,  and 
then  go  to  a  quiet  place  out  of  doors  and  walk,  read,  eat,  and 
sleep  for  two  or  three  days,  till  the  books  are  finishwl.  After 
this,  the  average  teacher  will  have  lost  respect  for  the  person 
who  abuses  her  health,  and  the  remainder  of  her  vacation, 
so  far  as  rest  and  exercise  are  concerned,  will  take  care  of 
itself. 

"  The  only  really  healthy  and  natural  state  of  man  or 
woman,"  says  Hutchinson,  "  is  neither  sitting.,  nor  stand- 
ing, nor  lying  down,  but  on  the  run."  It  is  cha^nge  from  too 
much  sitting  and  standing,  from  an  indoor  to  an  outdoor 
world,  and  from  a  narrow  to  a  broad  social  life ,  that  is  needed, 
and  some  part  of  the  vacation  should  be  dev  oted  exclusively 
to  these  purposes.  However,  rest  comes  qui  te  as  much  from 


HEALTH  AND  RECREATION  278 

change  of  work  as  it  does  from  stopping  work  altogether. 
A  certain  amount  of  general  reading,  some  travel,  and  attend- 
ance at  summer  school,  ought  easily  to  find  place  in  every 
teacher's  vacation.  These  will  add  variety,  and  furnish  the 
mind  with  fresh  ideas  that  wiQ  keep  dull  care  away  through- 
out the  long  months  later  on  of  shut-in  life  at  school.  Such 
a  vacation  puts  one  into  a  new  world,  no  less  busy  than  the 
old  one,  but  fresh  and  charming  as  the  spring,  —  it  sends 
us  back  to  our  tasks  with  new  stores  of  energy. 

6.  Chapter  summary 

Summarizing,  let  us  first  recall  the  facts  which  show  plainly  that 
teaching  is  an  occupation  which  lays  a  heavy  tax  upon  physical 
strength,  and  second  the  natural  tendency  of  teachers  to  treat 
these  facts  as  if  they  did  not  exist. 

This  chapter  has  not  only  pointed  out  the  causes  of  these  hard 
conditions,  —  as  bad  light,  poor  heating,  bad  ventilation,  lack  of 
cleanliness,  lack  of  toilet  and  other  facilities,  —  but  it  has  also 
pointed  clearly  to  their  possible  solution.  The  remedy  rests  largely 
with  the  teacher.  First,  she  must  know  the  simple  hygienic  stand- 
ards, and  how  and  where  to  apply  them;  and  second,  she  must 
insist  upon  their  constant  use  in  her  work. 

To  keep  physically  fit  the  teacher  must  have  recreation,  and  we 
have  urged  the  importance  of  taking  this  matter  seriously  and 
upon  living  a  sane  and  wholesome  life,  in  which  work  and  play  are 
properly  balanced  against  each  other.  Real  recreation  is  not  to  be 
confused  with  ordinary  gymnastics,  where  only  the  body  is  exer- 
cised, since  with  the  teacher  the  need  is  quite  as  much  for  a  new 
set  of  mental  pictures  as  it  is  for  physical  rest. 

REFERENCES  FOR  ADDITIONAL  READING 

Fisher  and  Fisk,  How  to  Live. 

Hutchinson,  Woods,  Exercise  and  Health,  diaps.  i,  n,  vi. 

Terman,  L.  M..  The  Teacher's  Health. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  What  in  your  own  experience  would  lead  you  to  consider  teaching  a 
trying  occupation? 

2.  How  many  teachers  have  you  known  who  are  past  fifty-five  years 


i!74  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

old?  Were  they  rendering  as  good  service  as  younger  teachers?  Were 
they  showing  their  age  more  than  people  in  other  callings? 
8.  Have  you  observed  that  teachers  frequently  have  throat,  nose,  and 
eye  troubles?  Are  teachers'  voices  less  soft  and  pleasing  than  you  are 
accustomed  to  hearing  on  the  street  and  in  the  store? 

4.  In  schools  where  you  have  taught  or  attended,  what  conditions  do 
you  recall  that  were  injurious  to  the  teacher's  health? 

5.  Apply  the  set  of  standards  here  presented  to  a  dozen  schoolrooms. 
What  are  the  results? 

6.  What  laws  in  your  State  are  designed  to  protect  the  health  of  the 
teacher  and  pupils?  Do  you  know  of  any  State  having  laws  that  are 
better  in  these  respects? 

7.  Make  out  a  list  of  books  and  magazines  which  you  could  recommend 
to  teachers  for  vacation  reading.  What  subjects  in  general  do  they 
cover? 

8.  What  percentage  of  your  waking  time  during  the  past  week  have  you 
devoted  to  exercise  and  recreation?  How  does  this  compare  with 
other  weeks?  What  kinds  of  exercise  were  included? 

9.  What  have  you  read  in  the  past  month  that  afforded  you  real  mental 
relaxation? 

10.  Make  out  an  ideal  plan  for  your  coming  vacation.  What  would  it 
cost  to  carry  out  the  plan?  Make  out  a  plan  that  your  salary  would 
warrant  your  carrying  out. 

11.  What  percentage  of  your  salary  this  year  has  been  spent  for  recreation 
and  self-development,  including  reading  matter,  travel,  entertain- 
ment, etc.?  Is  that  a  reasonable  allowance? 


CHAPTER  XIX 

THE  TEACHER  AT  WORK 

Outline  of  Chapter 

1.  The  teacher's  position — Origin  and  place  of  the  school  —  Making  the  school  effectiva 

2.  The  teacher's  relation  to  home  and  community  life  —  Making  school  work  vital  — 
Putting  the  home  to  work  —  Making  the  school  a  social  center  —  Beginning  the  work  at 
home  —  Extension  from  school  to  community. 

3.  The  teacher's  relation  to  the  school  system  —  Her  relation  to  the  superintendent  — 
Her  relation  to  the  principal  —  The  occasional  principal  —  Unnecessary  misunderstandings 
between  teacher  and  principal  —  The  efficient  principal  —  The  teacher's  relation  to  the 
supervisor. 

4.  The  teacher's  preparation  for  work  —  Daily  routine  —  Lesson  plans  —  Assignments; 
special  cases;  records. 

6.  Gjnserving  time  —  Planning  the  day. 

6.  Keeping  house  —  The  schoolroom  a  model. 

7.  The  teacher  in  her  profession  —  Professional  attitude. 

8.  Summary  of  Part  IV  —  References  —  Questions. 


1.  The  teacher's  position 

Origin  and  place  of  the  school.  The  teacher  stands  at  the 
immediate  point  of  contact  between  the  school,  as  an  insti- 
tution for  the  education  of  the  people  on  the  one  hand,  and 
the  home  and  community  life  of  the  people  on  the  other,  and 
so  must  become  an  important  working  factor  in  each.  She 
must  remember  that  originally  the  school  was  not  a  sepa- 
rate institution.  Children  were  taught  by  their  parents, 
and  only  with  the  growing  complexity  of  life  did  the  home 
call  in  a  teacher  from  the  outside  to  direct  the  training  of  the 
children.  The  school  of  to-day  is  in  its  origin  only  a  special- 
ization of  this  simple  practice.  To  restore  it  to  its  place  as 
a  real  factor  in  the  home  and  community  Hfe,  is  to  do,  then, 
not  a  new,  but  rather  a  very  ancient  thing. 

Making  the  school  effective.  This  means  that  the  teacher 
must  live  among  her  patrons,  enter  into  their  commimity 
{Uitivities,  and  assume  there  the  normal  responsibilities  of 
citizenship.    How  to  find  one's  way  into  the  hearts  of  the 


276  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

people  and  into  their  community  enterprises,  to  bring  with 
her  the  real  message  which  the  school  must  have,  and  to 
carry  back  from  the  life  of  the  people  the  best  it  can  give 
to  the  school,  is  a  task  which  should  command  the  entire 
energy,  and  time,  and  imagination  of  any  man  or  woman. 

The  teacher's  position,  then,  is  that  of  discovering  and 
putting  to  work  aU  the  educative  forces  to  be  found  in  her 
community,  whether  they  are  inside  the  school  or  out,  and 
to  direct  those  forces  to  the  end  that  education  shall  become 
a  large  and  pennanent  interest  among  the  people,  old  and 
young;  —  an  interest  not  separated  from,  but  intimately 
interwoven  with,  every  other  interest  of  worth  in  maintain- 
ing and  enriching  their  lives. 

2.  The  teacher's  relation  to  home  and  community  life 

Making  school  work  vital.  Just  how  to  go  to  work  to  make 
of  teaching  such  a  position  as  this  is  what  the  teacher  wants 
to  know.  A  position  that  is  wider  than  the  schoolhouse, 
wider  than  books,  wider  than  children  alone;  that  seeks  to 
push  the  school  into  the  home  and  the  shop,  and  to  bring  the 
home  and  the  shop  into  the  school;  that  uses  the  economic 
and  social  life  of  the  neighborhood  as  its  laboratory,  and  the 
school  in  turn  as  the  common  center  for  the  neighborhood's 
social  life,  how  can  this  traditional,  narrow,  schoolmastery 
task  be  stretched  to  such  proportions  P^ 

Those  who  have  recently  succeeded  in  building  up  their 
schools  along  these  lines  are  teachers  who  have  not  only 

*  More  concrete  suggestions  than  can  be  given  in  short  space  here  may 
be  got  by  reading  the  following  books,  which  are  stories  of  just  how  such 
positions  have  been  built  up.  While  the  humor  and  pathos  make  them 
interesting  in  themselves,  and  excellent  portrayals  of  human  nature,  yet 
they  do  not  hide  the  splendid  educational  messages  they  are  meant  to  con- 
vey to  teachers  and  parents.  Wray,  Angelina,  Jean  Mitchel's  School.  Quick, 
Herbert,  The  Brovm  Mouse.  Patri,  Angelo,  A  Schoolmaster  of  the  Great 
City. 


THE  TEACHER  AT  WORK  277 

insisted  that  "education  is  life,"^  but  have  turned  this 
definition  about,  and  have  tried  to  realize  also,  that  **  life 
is  education" ;  and  in  their  schools  have  sought  to  interpret 
home  and  community  life  to  the  children.  This  means: 

1.  That  their  curricula  have  gone  outside  of  books  for  many  of 
their  materials. 

2.  That  their  methods  have  benefited  by  suggestions  from  the 
normal  behavior  of  children  when  they  were  working  and 
playing  at  home  or  on  the  street. 

8.  That  their  management  has  utilized  motives  and  incentives 
that  were  found  to  be  effective  in  life  outside  the  school. 

4.  That  their  schoolhouses  have  not  remained  sacred  to  child- 
hood and  to  book  learning  alone. 

5.  That  their  schools  have  been  of,  by,  and  for  the  people,  and 
hence  the  people  were  permitted  to  know  intimately  of  their 
purposes,  their  means,  and  their  results. 

6.  Finally,  that  the  teachers  were  themselves  citizens  of  the  com- 
munities they  served. 

Elsewhere  2  have  been  presented  illustrations  of  what  it 
means  to  supplement  the  curriculum  with  materials  drawn 
from  hfe  outside  the  school,  and  to  utilize  in  methods  and 
management  such  motives  as  are  known  to  be  effective 
when  the  child  works  and  plays  unhindered,  but  it  remains 
here  to  be  suggested  to  the  teacher  that  the  tiny  drainage 
systems  a  few  steps  from  her  window,  the  oflSces  and  books 
of  the  city  street  department,  the  innumerable  family 
grocery  bills,  the  habitat  of  the  friendly  toad  in  the  flower 
garden,  the  daily  papers,  the  work  of  the  city  health  de- 
partment, and  the  ancient  landmarks  of  the  coromunity,  will 
not  marshal  themselves  unaided  into  her  geography,  civics, 
arithmetic,  nature  study,  reading,  hygiene,  and  history  ma- 
terials. These  things  must  be  found  and  taken  to  the  class, 
or,  better  still,  where  convenient,  the  class  should  be  taken 
to  them. 

1  See  chapter  xi  for  the  bearing  of  this  point  of  view  on  subject-matter. 
'  See  chapters  vm,  and  xi. 


278  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

There  are  few  laymen  who  are  not  quick  to  see  the  un- 
portance  of  and  to  help  in  making  these  things  available  for 
school  use  when  requested.  The  health  officer  in  his  labora- 
tory can  do  more  in  a  half  hour  to  establish  correct  notions 
of  pubHc  sanitation  than  can  be  done  by  textbook  methods 
in  a  week.  No  prosecuting  attorney  or  poKce  judge  is  too 
busy  to  present  to  the  classes  in  civics  something  of  the  prac- 
tical workings  of  the  laws  referred  to  in  their  textbooks. 
It  remains  only  for  the  teacher  to  coordinate  and  direct  these 
forces. 

Putting  the  home  to  work.  In  addition  to  selecting  ma- 
terials from  outside,  and  calling  upon  a  few  individuals  to 
render  some  specific  service,  the  teacher  must  also  put  the 
home  to  work.  The  child  is  at  home  more  than  anywhere 
else,  and  the  home  must  be  kept  consciously  at  work  with 
the  child's  education  if  om*  home-school-community  rela- 
tionship is  to  be  maintained.  This  has  been  done  success- 
fully in  numerous  rural  and  city  schools  by  granting  school 
credit  for  home  work.^  This  is  a  direct  means  of  making 
normal,  healthful  home  life  educative,  and  that  in  a  large 
and  important  sense.  Each  child  is  assigned  some  definite 
work  to  do,  such  as  building  fires,  caring  for  stock,  washing 
dishes,  sweeping,  practicing  music,  or  any  of  the  hundred 
tasks  that  too  frequently  fall  to  mother  to  do,  or  are  paid  for 
out  of  the  family  earnings. 

Making  the  school  a  social  center.  In  the  last  decade 
much  has  been  said  and  written  about  the  school  as  a  social 
center.  2  Before  the  building  of  cities  and  factories,  before 
the  vast  expansion  of  the  corporate  method  of  doing  busi- 
ness, people  lived  mostly  in  the  country,  and  on  the  farm 

*  See  Alderman,  L.  R.,  School  Industrial  Credit  and  Home  Industrial 
Work.  In  Massachusetts  some  "home-project"  work  is  required  as  a  part 
of  all  courses  in  agriculture  given  in  the  State-aided  schools. 

2  See  especially  Ward,  E.  G.,  The  Social  Center.  (D.  Appleton  &  G)., 
New  York.) 


THE  TEACHER  AT  WORK  279 

all  the  essential  processes  of  our  civilization  were  carried 
out.  Then  each  community  was  practically  sufficient  to 
itself.  Life  was  simple,  and,  owing  to  the  numerous  occu- 
pations present,  and  to  the  methods  of  neighborly  exchange 
of  labor,  it  was  varied.  To-day  this  is  all  changed.  Occu- 
pations are  mechanized  and  specialized,  and  the  possibility 
and  occasion  for  the  old  husking  bee,  barn-raising,  and  com- 
munity harvesting  have  disappeared.  The  home,  once  on 
most  intimate  terms  with  all  the  homes  near-by,  is  now 
isolated,  and  if  any  social  intercourse  is  had  with  neighbors 
some  artificial  reason  for  providing  the  opportunity  has 
first  to  be  figured  out.  The  result  in  rural  sections  has  been 
loneliness  and  social  disintegration,  while  in  the  city  it  is  a 
problem  of  congestion  with  its  inevitable  consequence,  the 
slum. 

The  school  has  been  called  upon  to  meet  this  need,  and 
the  whole  idea  is  expressed  in  the  term  "  social  center."  In 
many  places,  and  in  a  wide  variety  of  ways,  the  school  has 
met  this  need.  In  some  States  definite  laws  governing  such 
activities  have  been  enacted. 

Beginning  the  work  at  home.  How  can  this  be  done?  First 
of  all,  it  is  the  proper  business  of  the  teacher  to  initiate  such 
a  movement  if  it  is  not  already  started.  To  do  this  it  is  wiser 
to  begin  with  her  own  immediate  needs  for  the  school,  rather 
than  to  attempt  to  organize  forces  entirely  disconnected 
with  her  position.  What  are  cmr  school  needs?  should  be 
her  first  question  to  herself.  Perhaps  it  is  fresh  additions  to 
the  library,  or  other  teaching  equipment.  Perhaps  it  is  a 
plot  of  ground  for  nature  study  and  gardening;  or  pictures 
to  ornament  the  schoolroom;  or  better  toilet  facilities;  or  a 
jacketed  stove  with  better  arrangements  for  ventilation;  or 
sanitary  drinking-fountains;  or  flowers  and  shrubbery  for 
the  grounds;  or  almost  any  of  a  hundred  things  that  teacher 
and  principal  can  quickly  name. 


280  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

Once  parents  are  apprised  of  these  needs  it  is  easy  to  find 
some  one,  possibly  an  organization,  to  espouse  the  school's 
cause.  Meetings  of  those  interested  are  called  at  the  school- 
house,  and  the  situation  is  fully  gone  into  and  discussed. 
Perhaps  recommendations  will  be  made  to  the  school  board, 
perhaps  other  organizations  are  called  in,  and  finally  a  par- 
ent-teachers' association,  or  a  pubHc  welfare  club  of  some 
sort,  will  take  form.  If  so,  it  will  be  an  organization  with  its 
work  already  outlined. 

Extension  from  school  to  community.  From  an  open 
neighborhood  discussion  of  school  needs  may  naturally  de- 
velop, with  Httle  guidance,  discussion  of  other  commimity 
needs,  such  as  good  roads;  control  of  moving-pictiu^  thea- 
ters; joint  purchasing  or  marketing  facilities;  cleaner  and 
more  artistic  streets;  better  public  health  protection;  a 
larger  schoolhouse,  with  assembly  hall  and  moving-picture 
facilities;  a  branch  of  the  public  Ubrary  for  the  school;  an 
extra  teacher;  a  supervisor  of  play  and  community  recre- 
ation; and  other  greater  and  lesser  needs. 

Occasionally  the  school  children  will  furnish  an  evening's 
entertainment,  at  which  time  a  full  display  of  all  kinds  of 
school  and  home-project  work  may  be  made.  Other  enter- 
tainments will  be  provided  by  the  combined  musical  talent 
of  the  neighborhood;  or  an  outside  speaker  will  be  brought 
in  to  discuss  some  important  local  issue  of  a  political, 
social,  rehgious,  economic,  or  educational  character.  Thus 
the  people  are  drawn  together  along  natural  lines,  the  com- 
munity is  energized  and  stabilized,  and  the  school,  instead 
of  being  isolated  and  neglected,  is  drawn  into  natural  and 
essential  aUgnment  with  other  local  interests,  and  serves  an 
extensive  social  as  well  as  educational  need.  In  this  broader 
educational  scheme,  the  teacher  occupies  a  place  of  leader- 
ship and  responsibility  among  the  people,  while  the  people 
know  more  intimately  what  the  school  is  doing,  and  con- 


THE  TEACHER  AT  WORK  281 

sciously  share  its  burdens  as  they  share  in  all  other  local 
enterprizes.  ^ 

3.  The  teacher's  relation  to  the  school  system 

The  teacher  is  but  a  single  link  in  the  long  chain  of  oflScers 
and  materials  concerned  with  the  training  of  children.  She 
plays  a  single  part  in  a  large  program,  and  must  therefore 
understand  that  program,  and  the  other  players  in  it,  if  she 
is  not  to  miss  her  cue  and  spoil  the  play.  The  State,  the 
community,  and  the  home  are  all  concerned  that  this  pro- 
gram shall  be  a  success,  and,  aside  from  the  direct  and  in- 
direct assistance  rendered  by  each,  there  has  been  set  up  a 
complex  educational  machine  consisting  of  State  and  local 
superintendents,  principals,  supervisors,  and  teachers  for 
carrying  on  this  work.  It  is  only  by  hearty  cooperation 
among  these  oflScers  that  any  large  educational  service  can 
be  rendered. 

Her  relation  to  the  superintendent.  Aside  from  realizing 
that  every  school  is  a  State  institution,  and  that  teachers  are 
State  oflScers,  responsible  to  State  authorities  for  a  proper 
performance  of  their  duties,  the  teacher's  first  concern  is 
with  the  city,  county  or  township  superintendent  of  schools. 
This  officer  is  expected  to  lay  out  and  direct  the  general 
school  poKcy  for  a  large  number  of  schools.  Just  what  this 
policy  is,  and  how  it  aflFects  her  interpretation  of  the  cur- 
riculum, and  the  organization  and  management  of  her  daily 
work,  it  is  the  teacher's  business  to  know.  To  do  this  she 
should  know  her  superintendent  personally,  where  possible; 
she  should  know  something  of  his  ambitions  for  the  school 
system  as  a  whole;  she  should  learn  all  she  can  of  his  methods 

*  For  a  suggested  constitution  for  such  an  improvement  dub  in  a  country 
school  as  is  here  suggested,  and  for  suggestive  programs  of  meetings,  see 
Social  and  Civic  Work  in  Country  Communities.  State  Department  of 
Education,  Madison,  Wisconsin,  Bulletin  no.  18  (1913). 


«82  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

of  work;  she  should  hear  his  addresses,  and  read  his  bulletins 
and  reports;  and  through  these  means  try  to  catch  the  spirit 
of  his  office  and  to  feel  the  inspiration  of  his  leadership.  In 
rural  or  small  communities  she  wiU  often  go  directly  to  him 
with  her  own  problems,  receive  instructions  from  and  render 
reports  to  his  office. 

Her  relation  to  the  principal.  It  is  to  the  principal  the 
teacher  must  look  for  the  intimate  and  detailed  suggestions 
and  instructions  about  her  daily  work.  She  is  teaching  a 
single  grade,  or  perhaps  a  single  subject  in  several  grades. 
She  has  entire  charge  of  a  group  of  children  for  one  of  the 
eight  years  they  spend  in  the  school,  or  of  a  number  of 
classes  in  one  subject  through  several  years.  In  either  case 
she  is  dealing  with  a  part  of  a  larger  whole.  She  is  carrying 
out  a  single  section  of  an  eight-year  curriculum,  and  is 
directing  a  single  cross  section  of  the  child's  development. 
The  beginning  teacher,  in  particular,  will  early  need  to 
learn  that  her  task  is  not  an  isolated  one,  and  that  her  teach- 
ing will  only  be  effective  when  it  is  intimately  coordinated 
with  that  of  the  whole  teaching  force.  This  coordination 
it  is  the  business  of  the  principal  to  effect.  He  will  do  this 
by  suggestions,  and  at  times  by  specific  directions  to  his 
teachers. 

The  teacher,  therefore,  must  understand  that  the  prin- 
cipal is  the  highest  authority  in  the  school,  and  that  it  is 
her  part  to  assist  him  in  carrying  out  his  policy  of  education 
for  that  commimity.  This  teacher-principal  relationship,  it 
many  ways  the  most  important  single  relationship  in  out 
whole  educational  scheme,  is  very  often  misinterpreted  by 
both  principals  and  teachers. 

The  occasional  principal.  An  occasional  principal  feels 
called  upon  to  exercise  his  authority  at  every  turn,  and  is 
satisfied  with  his  accomplishment  only  when  his  teachers 
fear  him.    This  principal  hews  exactly  to  the  line.    If  his 


THE  TEACHER  AT  WORK  283 

curriculum  calls  for  compositions  of  three  paragraphs  in 
the  sixth  grade,  then  three  it  must  be  or  the  teacher  will 
receive  a  demerit  mark. 

Such  principals  are  rapidly  giving  place  to  a  new  type 
of  educational  director  who  rules  by  virtue  of  a  scientific 
understanding  of  his  work,  and  by  personal  qualities  of 
leadership,  rather  than  by  authority  which  has  been  dele- 
gated to  him.  Such  a  principal  deals  with  facts  and  with 
personalities;  gives  directions,  rather  than  orders;  leads, 
rather  than  drives;  and  expects  his  teachers  to  think  for 
themselves. 

Unnecessary  misunderstandings  between  teacher  and 
principal.  Teachers  cannot  always  select  their  own  princi- 
pals, but  no  teacher  should  sacrifice  her  own  individuality, 
to  say  nothing  of  depraving  the  true  rights  and  responsibili- 
ties of  the  teacher's  office,  by  becoming  a  mere  servant  to  an 
unreasoning  boss.  There  is  danger,  however,  of  similar  er- 
rors on  the  teacher's  part.  The  efficient  principal  must  con- 
duct his  business  with  dispatch.  Frequently  he  cannot  stop 
to  explain  fully  his  reasons  for  the  directions  he  gives;  fre- 
quently he  must  decide  things  in  faculty  meetings,  when 
there  is  indecision  or  a  pronounced  difference  of  opinion 
among  the  teachers;  frequently  he  cannot  grant  all  the  re- 
quests that  come  to  his  office.  The  teacher  of  narrow 
vision  often  mistakes  these  as  personal  rebukes  to  herself. 
What  is  needed  by  each  is,  first,  a  thorough  understanding 
of  their  respective  rights  and  duties;  second,  an  absolutely 
open  and  aboveboard  method  of  dealing  with  each  other; 
third,  a  real  desire  for,  and  effort  at  cooperation;  and, 
finally,  a  high  sense  of  loyalty  to  each  other  and  to  the 
essential  purposes  of  the  school. 

The  efficient  principal.  The  principal  is  expected  to  give 
a  clear  interpretation  of  the  curriculum  as  he  desires  it  to  be 
executed,  but  leaves  to  the  teacher  the  details  of  carrying 


284  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

on  the  work.  He  outlines  the  plan  of  organization  for  the 
children,  for  the  materials  of  the  curriculum,  for  directing 
playgroimd  activities,  and  trusts  to  the  inteUigence  of  his 
teachers  to  find  the  best  methods  of  putting  the  plans  into 
eflFect.  He  defines  the  character  and  amount  of  knowledge 
and  skill  in  given  lines  which  he  expects  the  children  to  have 
at  a  given  time,  but  leaves  the  teacher  quite  free  to  say 
just  how  she  will  accomplish  those  ends.  He  orders  supplies 
and  equipment,  but  does  not  dictate  the  details  of  their 
use. 

In  all  these  things  the  efficient  principal  will  necessarily 
draw  heavily  upon  the  judgment  of  the  teacher.  He  will 
make  promotions,  but  very  much  more  in  terms  of  the 
teacher's  judgment  than  in  terms  of  any  test  he  can  apply. 
He  will  determine  upon  a  plan  for  conducting  fire  drills, 
and  for  the  entrance  and  exit  of  the  children,  but  only  with 
the  most  careful  assistance  of  the  teachers,  who  are  to  be  in 
charge.  He  wiU  make  up  the  term  or  annual  budget  for  the 
school,  but  very  largely  in  terms  of  estimated  needs  supplied 
by  the  teachers.  He  may  administer  the  more  severe  cases 
of  discipline,  but  always  after  consultation  with  the  teacher 
in  charge. 

The  teacher's  relation  to  the  supervisor.  Aside  from  the 
principal  there  will  be  in  many  schools  one  or  more  special 
supervisors  of  defined  fields  of  work,  such  as  a  supervisor  of 
music,  of  domestic  science,  of  writing,  or  of  drawing.  It  is 
the  business  of  this  officer  to  outHne  and  give  intimate  direc- 
tion to  the  instruction  in  the  subject  in  question.  This  out- 
line, with  more  or  less  detailed  specifications,  the  teacher 
is  expected  to  carry  out.  In  doing  this  she  is  working  as  an 
assistant  under  the  directions  of  an  exi>ert,  and  her  success 
wiU  depend  upon  her  ability  to  learn  from  the  expert  and  to 
carry  out  his  directions  in  conducting  her  recitations. 


THE  TEACHER  AT  WORK  985 

If.  The  teacher^s  preparation  for  work 

Daily  routine.  Elsewhere  we  have  discussed  the  general 
preparation  and  growth  of  the  teacher.  Here  it  is  desirable 
to  consider  the  question  of  her  daily  preparation  for  the 
tasks  in  hand.  Each  day  brings  its  problems  of  routine  and 
its  new  problems,  and  without  some  definite  preparation 
the  procedure  is  likely  to  become  too  stereotyped  in  the  one 
case  and  too  halting  and  uncertain  in  the  other.  The  nature 
and  extent  of  preparation  will  vary  slightly  from  day  to 
day,  but  the  following  items  will  appear  fairly  regularly  on 
every  teacher's  daily  program :  Preparation  of  lesson  to  be 
taught;  preparation  of  assignments;  getting  the  necessary 
materials  and  equipment  ready;  careful  consideration  of 
special  cases  of  deficiency  in  discipline  or  in  scholarship, 
with  preparation  for  meeting  them;  records  and  reports  to 
be  made;  and  her  room  to  be  put  in  order.  The  time  for 
doing  most  of  these  things  is  the  evening  before  they  are 
to  be  used. 

Lesson  plans.  What  is  involved  in  preparing  the  lessons 
to  be  taught?  Let  us  imagine  that  this  is  for  a  beginning 
teacher,  for  it  is  only  necessary  to  remove  a  few  details  and 
shorten  the  written  plans  to  make  it  apply  to  experienced 
teachers  as  well.  First,  the  entire  lesson  should  be  gone  over 
to  see  exactly  what  it  includes,  how  it  is  related  to  previous 
lessons,  and  the  extent  to  which  it  will  need  to  be  supple- 
mented by  other  materials.  This  done,  the  next  step  is  to 
find  the  materials  to  be  used,  and  determine  exactly  what 
the  children  are  to  use  and  how  they  are  to  use  them.  Fi- 
nally, make  brief  notes  in  a  "  daily  lesson-plan  book  "  on 
what  is  to  be  used,  and  the  steps  in  the  procedure.  There 
will  be  books,  or  papers,  or  pictures,  or  objects  of  one  sort 
or  another  to  get  together;  possibly  the  class  is  to  be  taken 
outside  for  a  study  of  the  school  gardens,  or  the  habitat 


286  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

of  some  wild  flowers  or  insects  close  by;  and  all  these  things 
must  be  seen  and  very  definite  plans  made  for  handling 
them  in  the  classroom,  or  for  handling  the  class  out  of 
doors. 

Assignments;  special  cases;  records.  The  preparation 
of  assignments  must  be  made  in  a  similar  manner,  and  writ- 
ten plans  must  make  clear  where  the  materials  are,  how  they 
are  to  be  got  by  the  children,  and  how  the  lesson  is  related 
to  the  one  just  recited.  There  need  be  no  great  amount  of 
formality  about  these  plans,  except  that  at  first  they  should 
be  made  rather  full,  specific,  and  so  they  can  be  readily 
understood  by  the  principal,  who  will  look  them  over  from 
time  to  time  in  order  to  help  the  young  teacher  to  get  a 
right  start. 

Then  there  are  special  cases  to  prepare  for.  John  is  behind 
and  is  rapidly  losing  interest  in  language.  What  he  needs  is 
a  real  motive  for  wanting  to  use  language.  Similarly,  cases 
of  discipline  may  often  be  foreseen  and  obviated  by  the 
exercise  of  a  little  ingenuity  on  the  evening  before  they  are  to 
be  dealt  with. 

Too  much  emphasis  cannot  be  placed  upon  the  wisdom  of 
making  up  school  records  at  the  end  of  each  day,  before 
leaving  school.  Such  a  plan  guarantees  greater  accuracy, 
relieves  the  teacher's  mind,  and  facilitates  the  work  of  the 
principal  or  attendance  oflScer  in  case  such  records  are 
wanted  in  the  teacher's  absence. 

6.  Conserving  time 

Planning  the  day.  In  all  these  things  the  teacher  must 
learn  that  most  precious  of  arts,  the  art  of  conserving  time. 
To  develop  a  keen  "  time  sense  "  is  an  important  part  of 
every  teacher's  equipment.  Along  with  the  teacher's  motto, 
"  A  place  for  everything  and  everything  in  its  place,"  should 
go,  "A  time  for  everything  and  everything  on  time,"  and 


THE  TEACHER  AT  WORK  287 

"  Do  it  now."  No  teacher  can  spare  half  her  evenings  for  so- 
cial diversion  without  placing  a  serious  drain  upon  her  time 
and  energy.  There  should  be  set  aside  a  certain  portion 
of  the  evening  of  each  work  day  for  definite  preparation  for 
the  next  day's  tasks,  and  another  portion  for  reading  on 
the  program  suggested  on  page  257.  The  after  school  hours 
will  hold  sacred  an  allotted  time  for  making  records,  cor- 
recting papers,  holding  conferences,  shaping  things  in  gen- 
eral for  the  next  day,  and,  finally,  for  some  out-of-doors 
recreation. 

6.   Keeping  hoitse 

The  schoolroom  a  model.  For  many  children  the  begin- 
ning lessons  in  good  housekeeping  are  got  at  school.  For 
this  reason,  if  not  for  the  sake  of  saving  her  own  time  and 
energy,  the  teacher  should  learn  to  be  a  good  housekeeper. 
She  should  not  assume  the  duties  of  the  janitor,  but  when 
she  sees  an  accumulation  of  dust  on  the  pictiu-e  frames  and 
window  casings,  and  ink  spots  on  the  floor  or  desks,  and 
chalk  trays  laden  with  dust,  and  broken  furniture,  she  should 
see  that  the  janitor  assumes  his  own  duties  more  fully. 
Neither  should  the  teacher  rob  the  children  of  their  own 
proper  responsibilities  in  keeping  the  room  orderly  and  home- 
like. When  desks  are  seen  to  be  disarranged;  scraps  of 
paper  or  an  undue  amount  of  dirt  under  a  seat;  cloak-room 
floor  strewn  with  wraps,  basket-balls,  bats,  and  gloves; 
children  with  dirty  hands,  or  with  disheveled  clothing  or 
hair;  library  books  in  the  wrong  place;  children  sitting  in 
slovenly  positions,  or  walking  awkwardly;  it  is  not  the 
teacher's  business  to  set  these  things  straight  —  it  is  her 
business  to  see  that  the  particular  children  who  are  respon- 
sible shall  do  it  for  themselves. 

In  all  these  things  the  teacher  is  herself  the  model,  exem- 
plifying the  practice  she  enforces  among  the  children  by  her 


288  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

supervision.  Her  own  desk  should  not  be  a  mixture  of  stale 
bouquets,  marbles,  jack-knives,  papers,  erasers,  books,  and 
wraps,  but  should  always  be  a'  model  of  good  order.  The 
pictures  should  be  kept  hanging  straight,  the  window 
shades  rendering  service,  the  waste  basket  in  place,  supplies 
available  in  good  order,  torn  books  put  aside  for  mend- 
ing, dictionary  and  other  reference  books  easily  available, 
and  over  all  a  homelike  atmosphere  should  be  created  by 
her  own  gentle  manners. 

7.  The  teacher  in  her  profession 

Professional  attitudes.  Finally,  the  teacher  is  to  leam  and 
live  up  to  the  standards  of  her  profession.  There  are  per- 
sonal, ethical,  and  professional  standards  for  the  teaching 
profession,  as  there  are  for  the  legal  and  medical  profes- 
sions. In  some  ways  these  standards  are  not  so  clearly  de- 
fined for  the  teaching  as  for  other  professions,  due  largely 
to  the  profession  being  a  more  recent  development,  to  the 
nomadic  tendency  among  teachers,  and  to  the  large  num- 
ber of  temporary  members.  Yet  some  standards  are  well 
established,  and  others  are  rapidly  becoming  so. 

First,  the  teacher  must  respect  herself  and  the  work  she 
is  engaged  in.  She  cannot  defend  the  dignity  of  her  calling 
and  be  herself  undignified.  The  teacher  who  sneers  at 
teaching,  or  tries  to  hide  the  fact  that  she  is  a  teacher,  is 
not  above  her  fellows,  but  is  distinctly  unworthy  of  member- 
ship with  them.  Teaching  is  not  a  contemptible  calling  for 
weaklings,  and  the  teacher  must  learn  to  stand  on  her  own 
feet  and  think  and  act  for  herself  as  a  technically  trained 
public  servant. 

Secondly,  she  must  respect  the  highest  standards  that 
are  set  for  scholarship  and  professional  training,  and  frown 
down  the  tendency  of  laymen  to  pass  judgment  on  educa- 
tional values  of  which  they  have  no  special  knowledge. 


THE  TEACHER  AT  WORK  289 

This  is  one  of  the  nuisances  in  the  educational  world,  which 
teachers  ought  to  combat  more  vigorously  than  they  do. 
For  a  parent  or  member  of  a  lay  school  committee  to  try  to 
pass  judgment  on  a  teacher's  methods,  or  on  the  value  of 
teaching  appliances,  is  exactly  parallel  with  the  case  of  lay- 
men who  undertake  to  diagnose  any  and  every  sort  of  illness 
that  may  arise. 

Third,  the  teacher  must  respect  the  work  of  her  fellows. 
To  blame  some  former  teacher,  or  to  scoff  at  or  belittle  an- 
other teacher's  work  in  order  to  shield  herself,  is  equaled 
only  by  such  tricks  as  seeking  a  position  that  is  not  vacant, 
or  trying  to  bring  the  principal  or  some  fellow  teacher  into 
disrepute. 

Fourth,  the  teacher  who  would  Kve  up  to  the  best  stand- 
ards of  her  profession  must  demand  a  reasonable  salary, 
must  emulate  service,  must  avoid  that  over-dogmatic  atti- 
tude of  mind  so  detrimental  to  wholesome  growth  and 
pleasant  companionship,  must  refrain  from  seeming  supe- 
rior to  other  people,  and  must  keep  herself  personally  clean 
and  progressive. 

8.  Summary  of  Part  IV  * 

In  the  chapters  of  this  part  we  have  set  forth  in  brief  discussion 
those  more  or  less  personal  problems  which  the  teacher  must  mas- 
ter if  she  is  to  hold  a  real  place  in  her  chosen  profession.  We  have 
not  tried  to  think  of  the  teacher  apart  from  her  work,  but  quite  the 
opposite,  for  we  have  made  her  professional,  social,  and  personal 
responsibilities  everywhere  the  test  of  the  virtues  we  would  have 
her  possess.  Our  standards  have  been  set  high  for  the  reason  that 
only  men  and  women  of  worth  should  be  privileged  to  direct  the 
training  of  our  future  citizens. 

The  first  problem  is  that  of  personality.  Everywhere  example  is 
stronger  than  precept,  and  the  full  significance  of  this  ancient 
axiom  for  teachers  should  be  suggested  by  our  brief  discussion  of 
the  teacher's  personality.  Such  a  character  as  we  have  demanded 
there  is  not  attained  in  a  day,  but  it  is  attainable  for  those  who  ar« 


290  CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION 

willing  to  pay  the  price.  It  calls  for  earnest,  intelligent,  and  con- 
tinuous effort  and  study.  To  be  a  real  leader  calls  for  action,  backed 
up  by  knowledge  and  love  of  service.  To  become  a  leader  demands 
right  ideals,  right  principles  and  attitudes,  and  right  habits  and 
thoughts,  and  these  are  not  to  be  gained  by  viewing  them  from 
afar  or  by  reading  about  men  who  possess  them. 

The  second  problem  is  that  of  training  and  growth.  Here  also 
the  standard  is  set  high  because  the  demands  of  the  future  will  be 
constantly  rising.  The  teacher  must  not  only  know  books,  but  she 
must  know  men  and  affairs,  else  the  facts  she  teaches  will  be  with- 
out perspective.  In  addition  to  this  she  must  know  the  school,  — 
its  ideals  and  purposes,  its  possibilities,  its  methods,  and  the  chil- 
dren it  serves.  This  she  cannot  do  unless  she  grows  in  knowledge 
and  experience.  To  do  this  she  must  adopt  some  plan  of  self- 
education,  and  keep  to  it  from  year  to  year. 

The  third  problem  is  that  of  the  teacher's  health.  It  is  not  a  pale 
face  and  a  stooped  form  that  we  want  to  set  as  an  example  to  grow- 
ing children.  Only  men  and  women  of  red  blood  and  sturdy 
physique  can  do  well  the  work  a  teacher  must  do.  Exercise  and 
wholesome  enjoyment  go  well  with  hard  work.  They  keep  the 
mind  open  and  the  body  strong,  and  add  force  to  thought  and  act. 

It  is  believed  that  the  extent  to  which  these  standards  of  per- 
sonality, training,  and  health  have  been  attained  are  likely  to 
show  in  the  teacher's  work.  Accordingly,  in  our  final  chapter,  we 
have  tried  to  show  the  bearing  of  these  attainments  upon  the  teach- 
er's conception  of  her  position;  upon  the  relationship  which  she 
establishes  with  her  patrons,  and  with  her  fellow-teachers  and 
school  officers;  upon  her  own  preparation  and  methods  of  work; 
upon  the  way  in  which  she  conserves  her  own  time  and  energy; 
and  upon  her  own  professional  standards. 

The  teacher  who  lives  up  to  all  the  possibilities  we  have  suggested 
here  might  perhaps  be  our  ideal  teacher.  It  is  believed,  notwith- 
standing this,  that  these  standards  are  practically  attainable  for 
the  vigorous,  purposeful  teacher  of  to-day. 


REFERENCES  FOR  ADDITIONAL  READING 

Bennett,  H.  E.,  School  Efficiency,  chaps,  vra,  xv,  xxvn,  xxx. 

Foght,  H.  W.,   The  Rural  Teacher  and  His  Work,  Part  i,  chaps,  v,  vi; 

Part  n,  chap.  iv. 
Wilkinson,  W.  A.,  Rural  School  Management,  chaps,  n,  xiv,  xv. 


THE  TEACHER  AT  WORK  «91 


QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Explain  what  you  understand  to  be  the  distinction  between  the 
traditional  school  program  and  the  type  suggested  on  page  277,  and 
discuss  ways  and  means  for  realizing  in  practice  the  six  numbered 

principles  there  set  forth  as  characterizing  such  a  school. 

2.  What  is  meant  by  social  center?  Enumerate  the  specific  lines  of  serv- 
ice such  an  institution  might  render  in  a  country  community,  in  an 
industrial  community,  in  a  mining  center,  in  a  small  village,  in  a 
residence  section  of  a  large  city. 

3.  Work  out  a  plan  for  utilizing  and  crediting  as  school  work  lines  of 
home  work  suited  to  your  own  community. 

4.  Make  out  a  sample  program  for  a  commimity-center  meeting  in  your 
school,  or  in  some  school  you  know. 

5.  Explain  just  what  you  would  regard  as  your  duty  to  the  superintend- 
ent of  schools  in  a  city,  and  to  the  principal  of  your  own  school. 

6.  Try  to  draw  the  line  of  rights  and  duties  that  connects  the  work  of  the 
principal  with  that  of  the  teacher.  What  is  the  importance  of  guarding 
strictly  the  rights  of  the  teacher  against  encroachments  from  other 
school  officers? 

7.  Distinguish  between  the  prmcipal  who  administers  the  school  in 
terms  of  authority  delegated  to  his  office,  and  the  principal  who 
administers  in  terms  of  his  superior  knowledge  and  skill. 

8.  Outline  a  scheme  for  keeping  a  daily  plan-book.  Draw  up  a  plan  for 
teaching  a  lesson  on  some  topic  in  history.  Prepare  the  necessary 
notes  in  preparation  for  assigning  the  lesson  that  is  to  follow. 

9.  Show  what  you  would  put  into  your  plan-book  for  a  lesson  to  in- 
clude a  field  trip  to  study  poUiwogs. 

10.  Make  a  list  of  the  standards  which  you  consider  to  be  well  established 
in  the  teaching  profession.   What  others  should  be  established? 


SELECTED  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

The  following  list  of  fifty-six  titles,  with  names  of  pub 
lishers,  are  presented  here  in  alphabetical  order  for  the  con- 
venience of  the  reader  who  may  not  have  access  to  a  large 
library,  and  who  might  therefore  wish  to  pm-chase  some 
of  the  best  books  on  this  subject.  The  hst  includes  only  the 
titles  cited  at  the  ends  of  chapters  for  supplementary  read- 
ing. The  fifteen  most  useful  titles,  from  the  classroom 
teacher's  point  of  view,  are  indicated  by  an  *. 

Bagley,  W.  C.    Classroom  Management.  The  Macmillan    Co., 

N.Y.,  1908. 
Bagley,  W.  C.    Craftsmanship  in  Teaching.   The  Macmillan  Co., 

N.Y.,  1911. 
♦Bagley,  W.  C.    School  Discipline.   The  Macmillan  Co.,  N.Y., 

1914. 
Bagley,  W.  C.  The  Educative  Process.  The  Macmillan  Co.,  N.Y., 

1915. 
Bennett,  H.  E.   School  Efficiency.   Ginn  &  Co.,  Boston,  1917. 
Betts,  G.  H.  Classroom  Method  and  Management.  Bobbs-Merril/ 

Co  ,  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  1917. 
Betts,  G.  H.     The  Recitation.    Houghton  Miflain  Co.,  Boston, 

1911. 
Burris,  W.  P.  The  Public  School  System  of  Gary,  Ind.,  U.S.  Bureau 

of  Education,  Bulletin  no.  18,  1914. 
Butler,  N.  M.   The  Meaning  of  Education.  Chas.  Scribner's  Sons 

N.Y.,  1915. 
Chancellor,  W.  E.   Class  Teaching  and  Management.    Harper  & 

Bros.,  N.Y.,  1910. 
Chancellor,  W.  E.   Our  Schools;   Their  Supervision  and  Admin- 
istration. D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  Boston,  1904. 
Colgrove,  C.  P.    The  Teacher  and  the  School.    Chas.  Scribner's 

Sons,  N.Y.,  1910. 
*Cubberley,  E.  P.  Changing  Conceptions  of  Education.   Houghton 

Mifflin  Co.,  Boston,  1909. 


294  SELECTED  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

*Cubberley,  E.  P.   Rural  Life  and  Education.   Houghton  Mifflin 

Co.,  Boston,  1914. 
Cubberley,  E.  P.  Public  School  Administration.  Houghton  Mifflin 

Co.,  Boston,  1916. 
*Dewey,  John.  Schools  of  To-morrow.  E.  P.  Dutton  &  Co.,  N.Y., 

1915. 
Dewey,  John.   School  and  Society.   University  of  Chicago  Press, 

1915. 
Dewey,  John.  How  We  Think.  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  Boston,  1910. 
Dewey,  John.    Democracy  and  Education.   The  Macmillan  Co., 

N.Y.,  1916. 
Dutton,  S.  T.  School  Management.  Chas.  Scribner's  Sons,  N.Y., 

1903. 
Earhart,  Lida  B.  Teaching  Children  to  Study.  Houghton  Mifflin 

Co.,  Boston,  1909. 
EHot,  Chas.  W.   The  Concrete  and  Practical  in  Modem  Education. 

Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  1913. 
EHot,  Chas.  W.  Education  for  Efficiency.  Houghton  Mifflin  Co., 

Boston,  1909. 
*Fisher  and  Fisk.  How  to  Live.  Funk  &  Wagnalls,  N.Y.,  1915. 
Fiske,  John.    The  Meaning  of  Infancy.    Houghton  Mifflin  Co., 

Boston,  1909. 
Foght,  H.  W.    The  Rural  Teacher  and  His  Work.   The  Macmillan 

Co.,  N.Y.,  1917. 
*Freeman,  F.  N.  The  Psychology  of  the  Common  Branches.  Hough- 
ton Mifflin  Co.,  Boston,  1916. 
Holmes,  Wm.  H.    School  Organization  and  the  Individual  Child. 

The  Davis  Press,  Worcester,  Mass.,  1912. 
Home,  H.  H.    Story-Telling,  Questioning y  and  Studying.     The 

MacmiUan  Co.,  N.Y.,  1916. 
Hutchinson,  Woods.    Exercise  and  Health.    Outing  Publishing 

Co.,  N.Y.,  1911. 
*Hyde,    Wm.    DeWitt.     The    Teacher's    Philosophy.    Houghton 

Mifflm  Co.,  Boston,  1910. 
Kellogg,  A.M.  School  Management.  E.  L.  Kellogg  &  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1884. 
McKenny,  Chas.    The  Personality  of  the  Teacher.  Roe,  Peterson 

&  Co.,  Chicago,  1910. 
McMurry,  F.  M.    Elementary  School  Standards.  World  Book  Co., 

Yonkers,  N.Y.,  1913. 
*McMurry,  F.  M.   How  to  Study  and   Teaching  How  to  Study, 

Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  Boston,  1909. 


SELECTED  BIBLIOGRAPHY  295 

♦Monroe,  W.  S.,  DeVoss,  J.  C.  and  Kelly,  F.  J.  Educational  Tests 

and  Measurements.  Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  Boston,  1917. 
Morehouse,  Francis.    The  Discipline  of  the  School.   D.  C.  Heath 

&  Co.,  Boston,  1914. 
Pakner,  Geo.  Herbert.  The  Ideal  Teacher.  Houghton  Mifflin  Co.j 

Boston,  1910. 
Parker,  S.  C.  Methods  of  Teaching  in  the  High  School.  Ginn  &  Co., 

Boston,  1915. 
Patri,  Angelo.  A  School  Master  of  the  Great  City.  The  Macmillan 

Co.,  N.Y.,  1917. 
Perry,  A.  C.   Discipline  as  a  School  Problem.  Houghton  Mifflin 

Co.,  Boston,  1915. 
Seeley,  Levi.  A  New  School  Management.  Hinds  &  Noble,  N.Y., 

1903. 
Small,  W.  H.  Early  New  England  Schools.   Ginn  &  Co.,  Boston, 

1914. 
Smith,  W.  H.  An  Introduction  to  Educational  Sociology.  Houghton 

Mifflin  Co.,  1917. 
*Strayer,  Geo.  D.   A  Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process.   The 

Macmillan  Co.,  N.Y.,  1911. 
Strayer  and  Norsworthy.  How  to  Teach.    The  Macmillan  Co., 

N.Y.,  1917. 
*Terman,  L.  M.   The  Teacher's  Health.    Houghton  Mifflin  Co., 

Boston,  1913. 
*Terman,  L.  M.    The  Hygiene  of  the  School  Child.    Houghton 

Mifflin  Co.,  Boston,  1914. 
Terman,   L.   M.     The  Measurement  of  Intelligence.   Houghton 

Mifflin  Co.,  Boston,  1916. 
Thorndike,  E.  L.  Education.  The  Macmillan  Co.,  N.Y.,  1912. 
Thorndike,  E.  L.   Individuality.  Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  Boston, 

1911. 
White,    Emerson.    School   Management.     American    Book   Co., 

N.Y.,  1893. 
Wilkinson,  W.  A.  Rural  School  Management.  Silver,  Burdett  & 

Co.,  Chicago,  1917. 
*Wilson,  H.  B.  and  G.  M.  Motivation  of  School  Work.  Houghton 

Mifflin  Co.,  1916. 
*Woofter,  T.  J.    Teaching  in  the  Rural  Schools.  Houghton  Mifflin 

Co.,  1917. 
*Wray,  Angelina.  Jean  MitcheWs  School.  Public  School  Publishing 

Co.,  Bloomington..  Indiana.  1902. 


INDEX 


Absence,  causes  of,  51;  cases  of,  de- 
mand individual  treatment,  53. 

Esthetic  aim,  15. 

Aim,  changing,  19;  cost  of  an  indefi- 
nite, 23;  function  of,  in  manage- 
ment, 19  ff.;  importance  of  clear, 
16,  20,  22,  23,  24,  25;  importance 
of  modern  social,  21;  in  punish- 
ment, 76  fiF. ;  in  the  learning  proc- 
ess, 176;  of  recitation,  190,  192; 
related  to  method,  21 ;  relation  of, 
to  motive,  24;  testing  as  an,  194. 

Aim  of  school,  8;  aesthetic,  15;  from 
child's  viewpoint,  9;  from  society's 
viewpoint,  9;  health  as  an,  11; 
knowledge  as  an,  13;  morality  as 
an,  12;  need  for  specific,  10;  vo- 
cational or  utilitarian,  14. 

Alderman,  L.  R.,  278. 

Allotment  of  time,  161  ff. 

Alternation  of  studies,  168,  170. 

Anderson,  W.  N.,  247. 

Appearance,  personal,  235. 

Assignment,  considerations  in  the, 
179;  how  to  make  an,  178  ff.; 
must  provide  a  motive,  180,  186. 

Attendance,  49,  102;  and  discipline, 
210;  compulsory,  51;  department 
of,  55;  meaning  of  poor,  52;  solu- 
tion of  poor,  53  ff.;  State's  interest 
in,  50;  the  problem  of,  51. 

Baldwin,  J.  Mark,  on  relation  of  in- 
dividual to  society,  8. 

Bassett,  Lee  Emerson,  238. 

Batavia  system,  139. 

Behavior,  as  part  of  the  school  en- 
vironment, 67. 

Boyce,  A.  C,  teacher  eflSciency  score 
card  of,  253,  254. 

^reeding,  good,  235. 

tfuellesfield,  Henry,  252. 

jurk,  C.  F.,  137. 


Cambridge  plan,  135. 

Child,  the  object  of  management,  27, 
49. 

Childhood,  responsive  character  of, 
50. 

Clapp,  F.  L.,  252. 

Coffman,  L.  D.,  250,  264. 

Compulsory  attendance,  51. 

Cook  and  O'Shea,  155. 

Cooperation  and  competition,  196. 

Conversation,  teacher's  ability  in, 
236. 

Course  of  study.  See  Curriculum. 

Crampton,  C.  W.,  126. 

Cubberley,  E.  P.,  139,  267. 

Curiosity,  instinct  of,  31. 

Curriculum,  144;  as  a  body  of  ex- 
perience, 149;  changing  nature  of, 
147;  fads  and  frills  in,  148;  how 
to  socialize  the,  151;  teacher's  re- 
sponsibility touching  the,  152;  ten- 
dency in  making,  156;  two  view- 
points affecting  the,  145. 

Devices,  as  incentives,  98. 
DeVoss,  J.  C,  131,  216,  217. 
Dewey,  John,  147. 
Discipline,  102;  attendance  and,  210; 

causes  of  bad,  61  ff.;  meaning  of, 

59. 
Drill  as  an  aim,  197. 

Earhart,  Lida  B.,  174,  199. 
Education,  a  process  of  change,  208; 

as  expression,  3  ff.;  as  inhibition, 

5,  17;  essential  to  life,  3;  natural 

vs.  artificial,  7. 
Efficiency,  a  clear  aim  essential  to, 

22. 
Effort,  relation  of,  to  interest,  88. 
Elliott,  E.  C,  253;  Starch  and,  214. 
Environment,  39;  behavior  as  part 

of.  67. 


298 


INDEX 


Everts,  Katherine  Jewell,  238. 
Exercise,  recreation  and,  271. 
Examination,  a  means  of  measure- 
ment, 212;  defects  in,  as  test,  214. 

Fatigue,  164;  deductions  from  study 

of,  165. 
Fire  drill,  117. 
Frankness,  231. 
Freeman,  F.  N.,  217. 

Grading,  a  necessity,  123;  as  an  in- 
centive, 96;  flexibility  in,  133; 
multiple  course  plan  of,  136,  137; 
possible  bases  of,  126;  proper 
bases  for,  125;  single  course  plan 
of,  134. 

Habits,  formation  of,  33;  of  study, 
183;  teacher  should  develop  spe- 
cific, 240;  training  the  pupil  in 
proper,  89. 

Harris,  Dr.  Wm.  T.,  138. 

Health,  as  a  school  aim,  11;  of  teach- 
er, 263  flF.;  school  work  and,  35; 
the  problem  of,  34.  See  chapter  on 
Teacher's  Health. 

Heating  and  ventilation,  267. 

Hillegas,  Milo,  217. 

Hoag,  E.  B.,  269. 

Hoke,  K.  J.,  132. 

Holiday  programs,  97. 

Holmes,  H.  W.,  study  on  time  allot- 
'     ment  quoted,  163. 

Honor  rolls,  100. 

Hygienic  standards,  269. 

Idea,  related  to  action,  5. 

Ideals,  how  established,  101. 

Imitate,  instinct  to,  31. 

Immaturity,  an  educational  re- 
source, 28. 

Incentive,  103;  a  means  not  an  end, 
95;  incident  to  teaching  method, 
90;  and  acquired  interests,  101; 
incident  to  plans  of  organization, 
98;  must  be  adapted  to  age,  92,  95; 
must  make  positive  appeal,  93  ff . ; 
in  management,  87  ff. 

Individual  differences,  36,  95;  edu- 
cational significance  of,  36;  how 


displayed,  129;  in  general  intelli- 
gence, 127  ff. 

Infancy,  period  of,  28  ff. 

Information,  as  an  aim,  16. 

Instinct,  29;  collecting  and  hoarding, 
32;  constructive,  31;  of  curiosity, 
31;  of  emulation,  32;  modifiability 
of,  29,  32;  the  gregarious,  32;  to 
imitate,  31 ;  to  play,  30. 

Instruction,  individual  vs.  group,  124. 

Intelligence,  distribution  of,  128. 

Iowa  State  Course  of  Study,  daily 
program,  169. 

James,  on  habit-formation,  34. 
Jessup,  W.  A.,  162,  264. 
Johnson,  Joseph  Henry,  216. 

Kelly,  F.  J.,  216,  217,  131. 
Kennedy,  J.,  139. 
Klapper,  Paul  J.,  56. 
Knowledge,  as  an  aim,  12;  relation 

of,  to  conduct,   13;  the  basis  of 

leadership,  69. 
Kratz,  H.  E.,  quoted,  236. 

Learning,  necessary  to  life,  4;  social 

character  of,  6. 
Learning  process,   management  of, 

177. 
Locke,  John,  quoted,  235. 
Loyalty,  as  a  school  aim,  16. 

Mackenzie,  W.  L.,  269. 

McMurry,  F.  M.,  199. 

Management,  a  rational  process,  42; 
environmental  factors  in,  39; 
human  factors  in,  27  ff.;  the  test 
of  eflicient,  41. 

Manners,  good,  236. 

Marking,  variability  in  illustrated, 
214. 

Means,  mistaken  for  end,  22  ff. 

Measurement,  297  ff.;  beginning  of 
comparative  school,  215;  examina- 
tion a  means  of,  212;  teacher. 
253  ff. 

Membership,  49,  209. 

Method,  dependent  upon  aim,  21. 

Monroe,  W.  S.,  131,  216,  217. 

Morality,  as  an  aim,  12. 


INDEX 


299 


Offner  and  Whipple,  164. 

Optimism,  234. 

Order,  102;  causes  of  bad,  61-66;  con- 
ditions of  good,  68;  putting  the 
room  in,  118. 

Organization,  110;  as  means  and  as 
end.  111;  mechanical  features  of, 
115;  of  materials,  181 ;  plans  of,  as 
incentives,  95. 

O'Shea,  Cook  and,  155. 

Patri,  Angelo,  276. 

Personality,  essential  qualities  of, 
231  ff.;  meaning  of,  228;  positive 
and  negative  types  of,  229;  the 
teacher's,  227  ff.;  training  for, 
238  ff. 

Plans,  for  first  day,  112  ff.;  lesson, 
285 ;  promotion,  why  teacher  should 
understand,  140;  steps  in  making, 
41. 

Play,  instinct  of,  30;  must  yield 
values,  23;  relation  of,  to  essen- 
tial social  processes,  30;  super- 
vised, 23. 

Principal,  the  efficient,  283. 

Prizes,  as  incentives,  99;  dangers  of 
competitive,  94. 

Professional  meetings,  260. 

Professional  reading,  256;  a  program 
of,  257  ff. 

Program,  for  rural  school,  169;  il- 
lustration of,  167;  making  of,  159, 
221;  the  daily,  119, 159;  use  of,  170. 

Promotion,  annual,  138;  as  an  in- 
centive, 96. 

Pueblo  Plan,  the,  140. 

Punishment,  55, 103;  administration 
,of,  81;  as  teaching,  81;  character- 
istics of  effective,  78;  kinds  of,  79; 
meaning  of,  75;  reasons  for,  75; 
time  and  place  for,  83. 

Questions,  test  of  good,  204;  types 

of,  203. 
Quick,  Herbert,  276. 

Recitation,  188;  aim  of  the,  190, 192, 
197;  lecture  plan  of,  202;  meaning 
of,  189;  periods,  161;  plan  of,  199; 
products,  193;  teaching  as  aim  of, 


195;  testing  as  aim  of,  194;  tests, 

191;  topical  plan  of,  201. 
Recitation  periods,  161. 
Records  and  reports,  53,  212. 
Recreation,  166,  271. 
Reflex,  29. 

Reports,  records  and,  53,  212. 
Rice,  Dr.  J.  M.,  215. 
Rousseau,  4. 
Ruediger,  Wm.  Carl,  255. 

St.  Louis,  school  report  of,  quoted, 
51. 

Santa  Barbara  Plan,  137. 

Scales,  standardized,  215;  Thorn- 
dike  writing,  216. 

School,  a  social  center,  278;  origi© 
and  place  of,  275;  the  task  of, 
29. 

School  exhibits,  97. 

School  machinery,  211. 

Score  card,  253  ff. 

Search,  W.  P.,  140. 

Sears,  J.  B.,  52,  126,  163. 

Self-sacrifice,  233. 

Senses,  function  of  the,  33. 

Shideler,  S.  E.,  252. 

Signals,  119. 

Skill,  as  an  aim,  16. 

Small,  W.  S.,  265. 

Social  center,  278. 

Standards,  hygienic,  269;  desirable 
schoolroom,  219. 

Starch  and  Elliott,  214. 

Stevens,  Romiett,  202. 

Stone,  C.  W.,  216. 

Strayer,  Geo.  D.,  199. 

Study,  173;  intelligent,  175;  teaching 
how  to,  182;  the  meaning  of,  174. 

Studies,  form  and  content,  153;  so- 
cialized, 151;  the  order  of,  164. 

Survey,  report  of,  Butte,  267;  Cleve- 
land, 267;  Portland,  267;  Spring- 
field, 267;  Salt  Lake  City,  267. 

Subject-matter,  socialized,  150;  types 
of,  153. 

Sympathy,  231. 

Tact,  232. 

Tardiness,  type  cases  of,  51  ff. 

Teachers,  and  the  curriculum,  152; 


soo 


INDEX 


age  distribution  of,  263;  as  leaders, 
50;  as  society's  agents,  27;  causes 
of  failure  of,  252;  growth  of,  255; 
health  of,  263;  hygienic  standards 
of,  269;  judgment  of,  214;  mortal- 
ity rates  of,  264;  must  control 
school  environment,  40;  must 
mould  public  opinion,  68;  nervous 
diseases  of,  265;  personal  appear- 
ance of,  235;  personality  of,  227, 
ff.;  positive  and  negative  types, 
230;  preparation  for  work  of,  285; 
profession  of,  288;  professional  de- 
mands upon,  42;  reading  for,  256- 
59;  recreation  for,  270;  relation- 
ships of,  43,  50,  276,  281  S.;  re- 
sponsibility of,  84,  152;  score  card, 
253,  254;  training  and  growth, 
245  flF.;  vacations  for,  273. 

Teaching  as  an  aim,  194. 

Terman,  L.  M.,  128,  131,  132,  265, 
269. 

Tests,  215  ff.;  limitation  to  use  of, 
219;  practical  use  of,  218;  recita- 
tion, 191;  teachers  must  under- 
stand standardized,  130;  use  of 
standard,  216. 

Testing  as  an  aim,  194. 

I'extbook,  use  of,  200. 

Theory,  relation  of,  to  practice  in 
management,  20;  the  pin-fall- 
quiet,  23;  vs.  tradition,  20. 


Thomdike.  E.  L.,  126,  216,  250. 

Time  allotment,  161;  in  representa* 
tive  cities,  162. 

Tradition,  the  force  of,  in  school 
management,  21. 

Training,  academic,  demanded,  248; 
and  merit  in  teaching,  251;  extent 
of,  required,  250;  facilities  for,  246; 
in  proper  habits,  89;  increased  de- 
mand for  better,  245;  professional, 
demanded,  249;  the  teacher's, 
245  ff. 

Truancy,  54. 

Updegraff,  H.,  246. 
United  States  Bureau  of  Education^ 
264. 

Vacation,  the  teacher's,  272. 
Ventilation,  heating  and,  267. 
Vocational  aim,  14. 
Voice,  the  teacher's,  238. 

Ward,  E.  G.,  the  social  center,  278. 
Waste,  due  to  indefinite  aim,  23. 
Whipple,  Offner  and,  164. 
Wisconsin,    State    Department    of 

Education,  281. 
Witham,  Ernest  C,  253. 
Work,  rules  concerning,  164. 
Wraps,  handling  of,  117. 
Wray,  Angelina,  276. 


RIVERSIDE 
TEXTBOOKS    IN    EDUCATION 

General  Educational  Theory 

PSYCHOLOGY  FOR  NORMAL  SCHOOLS. 

By  L.  A.  AvERiLL,  Massachusetts  State  Normal  School,  Worcester. 
EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION. 

By  F.  N.  Freeman,  University  of  Chicago. 
HOW  CHILDREN  LEARN. 

By  F.  N.  Freeman. 
THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  THE  COMMON  BRANCHES. 

By  F.  N.  Freeman. 
THE  PRE-SCHOOL  CHILD. 

By  Arnold  Gesell,  Ph.D.,  M.D.,  Director  Yale  Psycho-Clinic,  Professor  ot 

Child  Hygiene,  Yale  University. 
DISCIPLINE  AS  A  SCHOOL  PROBLEM. 

By  A.  C.  Perry,  Jr. 
AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY. 

By  W.  R.  Smith,  Kansas  State  Normal  School. 
TRAINING  FOR  EFFECTIVE  STUDY. 

By  F.  W.  Thomas,  State  Normal  School,  Fresno,  California. 
AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  CHILD  PSYCHOLOGY. 

By  C.  W.  Waddle,  Ph.D.,  Los  Angeles  State  Normal  School 

History  of  Education 

THE  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION. 

By  E.   P.  CUBBERLBY. 

A  BRIEF  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION. 

By  E.   P.  CUBBERLBY. 

READINGS  IN  THE  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION. 

By  E.  P.  CUBBERLEY. 

PUBLIC  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

By  E.  P.  CUBBERLEY. 

Administration  and  Supervision  of  Schools 

HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS:  HOW  TO  BUILD,  EQUIP,  AND  MAINTAIN 

THEM. 

By  May  Ayrbs,  J.  F.  Williams,  M.D.,  University  of  Cincinnati,  and  T.  D. 

Wood,  A.M.,  M.D.,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 
PUBLIC  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION. 

By  E.  P.  CUBBERLEY. 

RURAL  LIFE  AND  EDUCATION. 

By  E.  P.  CUBBBRLBY. 

A  GUIDE  TO  EDUCATIONAL  MEASUREMENTS. 

By  Harlan  C.  Hines,  Assistant  Professor  of  Education,  The  University  of 
Washington. 

HEALTH  WORK  IN  THE  SCHOOLS. 
By  E.  B.  HoAG,  M.D.,  and  L.  M.  Terman,  Leland  Stanford  Junior  University. 

INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  THEORY  OF  EDUCATIONAL  MEASURE- 
MENTS. 
By  W.  S.  Monroe,  University  of  Illinois. 

MEASURING  THE  RESULTS  OF  TEACHING. 

By  W.  S.  Monrob. 

1926  a 


EDUCATIONAL  TESTS  AND  MEASUREMENTS. 
By  W.  S.  Monroe,  J.  C.  DbVoss,  Kansas  State  Normal  School;  and  F.  J, 
Kblly,  University  of  Kansas. 

THE  SUPERVISION  OF  INSTRUCTION. 
By  H.  W.  NuTT,  University  of  Kansas. 

STATISTICAL  METHODS  APPLIED  TO  EDUCATION. 

By  H.  O.  RuGG,  University  of  Chicago. 

CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION  AND  CONTROL. 

By  J.  B.  Sears,  Leland  Stanford  Junior  University. 

A  HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS. 

By  N.  D.  Showalter,  Washington  State  Normal  School. 

THE  HYGIENE  OF  THE  SCHOOL  CHILD. 

By  L.  M.  Tbrman. 

THE  MEASUREMENT  OF  INTELLIGENCE. 
By  L.  M.  Tbrman. 

Test  Material  for  the  Measurement  of  Intelligence.    Record  Booklets  for  the 
Measurement  of  Intelligence. 

THE  INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN. 
By  L.  M.  Terman. 

Methods  of  Teaching 

TEACHING  LITERATURE  IN  THE  GRAMMAR  GRADES  AND  HIGH 
SCHOOL. 

By  Emma  M.  Bolbnius. 

HOW  TO  TPACH  THE  FUNDAMENTAL  SUBJECTS. 

By  C.  N.  Kendall  and  G.  A.  Mirick. 

HOW  TO  TEACH  THE  SPECIAL  SUBJECTS. 
By  C.  N.  Kendall  and  G.  A.  Mirick. 

SILENT  AND  ORAL  READING. 
By  C.  R.  Stone. 

THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL. 
By  G.  H.  Trafton,  State  Normal  School,  Mankato,  Minnesota. 

TEACHING  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS. 
By  T.  J.  Woofter,  University  of  Georgia. 

Secondary  Education 

THE  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOL. 
By  Thos.  H.  Briggs,  Columbia  University. 

THE  TEACHING  OF  ENGLISH  IN  THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOL 
By  Charles  Swain  Thomas. 

PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION. 
By  Alexander  Inglis,  Harvard  University. 

PROBLEMS  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION. 

By  David  Snedden,  Columbia  University. 

HOUGHTON  MIFFLIN  COMPANY 

1926  b 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LJB^ 


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